Systems and methods for applying or receiving signals to or from biological tissues

ABSTRACT

Systems and methods for applying and/or receiving electrical, magnetic, magnetoelectric, vibratory, or electromagnetic signals to biological tissues are described. In some embodiments, one or more of a body, a conductor, an electrode, and a magnetic element may be provided. The conductor may be configured to be electrically coupled to at least one of a power source and a detector. The electrode may include a surface configured to contact a biological tissue portion and apply and/or receive an electrical signal to and/or from the biological tissue portion. The magnetic may selected from a group consisting of a magnet, a toroid, a conductive coil, a magnetic powder, and a magnetic fluid.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.15/885,353 filed Jan. 31, 2018, which claims the benefit of U.S.Provisional App. No. 62/488,501 filed Apr. 21, 2017, U.S. ProvisionalApp. No. 62/501,042 filed May 3, 2017, U.S. Provisional App. No.62/501,053 filed May 3, 2017, and U.S. Provisional App. No. 62/501,046filed May 3, 2017.

BACKGROUND Field of Invention

The present invention relates to systems and methods for applying and/orreceiving electrical, magnetic, magnetoelectric, vibratory, orelectromagnetic signals to and/or from biological tissues.

Discussion of the Background

There are a number of applications in which it is desirable to applyand/or receive electrical, magnetic, magnetoelectric, or electromagneticsignals to biological tissues. In some applications, for example, it maybe desirable to monitor and record electrical activity of the brain(e.g., electroencephalography). Such monitoring may be used fordiagnostic purposes. In other cases, electrical signals received fromthe brain may be used to facilitate a brain-machine interface. Forexample, individuals who have lost use of certain motor functions maybenefit from using measurements of brain activity to direct the actionsof prosthetics or other machines.

In still other cases, an individual may wish to apply an electrical,magnetic, magnetoelectric, vibratory or electromagnetic stimulus orcurrent to a portion of their body. Studies have found that suchstimulus, when applied to the brain, may promote cognitive and memoryfunction. It has been found that such stimulus may increase blood flow,improve or trigger muscle function, and promote general health andwellness. A major challenge in transferring signals to and from thehuman body comes from the skin. Skin—and in particular the first layerof skin—contains a substantial percentage of the impedance whenperforming bioelectric recording and stimulating. When recording acrossthis the skin, the internal bioelectric signals are made weaker relativeto external noise by the increased electromotive force needed to drivecurrent across the electrode-skin interface, resulting in smearing ofthe input signal and a higher signal-to-noise ratio. When stimulatingacross this interface, the signals entering the skin are not only madeweaker, but also tend to focally pinpoint into a single point on theskin, resulting in pain and sometimes permanent burns.

Solutions to the high skin impedance problem generally have a number oftrade-offs in clinical, laboratory, and consumer products. Invasiveelectrodes, which are implanted inside the body, easily subvert theproblem of having to go through any layers of skin, but they areexpensive, require surgery to implant, and have long-term compatibilityissues. Non-invasive electrodes, which stay outside of the inner bodytissue, are cheaper, easily-removable, and have fewer long-termcompatibility problems. When using non-invasive electrodes, one mannerto reduce skin impedance is to have a trained professional first“scratch off” the first layer of skin prior to electrode application.Subverting the first layer of skin in this manner can lower skinimpedance by 60 to 90%. Another option with similar results is to wetthe skin with an appropriate ionic or saline solution. This lowersimpedances to similar levels by carrying the current more effectivelyacross the skin layers, as the solution is able to penetrate deeper skinlayers and create a conductive path towards the signal, but requiresconstantly wetting the electrodes for longer duration use. A thirdtechnique used today is the forceful “pin-electrode” technique whichuses tiny metal pins to penetrate the skin layers, resulting indiscomfort that is unsuitable for long-term recordings.

In all of these techniques, there is an undesirable level of discomfort,inconvenience, and delay. There is a need, therefore, for techniques toreduce impedance while maximizing comfort and ease of use.

SUMMARY

The following presents a simplified summary in order to provide a basicunderstanding of some aspects described herein. This summary is not anextensive overview of the claimed subject matter. It is intended toneither identify key or critical elements of the claimed subject matternor delineate the scope thereof. Its sole purpose is to present someconcepts in a simplified form as a prelude to the more detaileddescription that is presented later.

In some embodiments, a system for applying and/or receiving anelectrical signal may be provided. The system may include a body and aconductor, which may be configured to be electrically coupled to atleast one of a power source and a detector. The system may furtherinclude a first filament, which may include a base portion and a firsttip end. In some embodiments, the base portion may be electricallycoupled to the conductor, and the first filament may be electricallyconductive such that the first filament is configured to carry anelectrical signal between the base portion and the first tip end. Insome embodiments, at least a portion of the first filament may bearranged to contact a biological tissue portion.

In some embodiments, a method of applying and/or receiving an electricalsignal via a biological tissue portion may be provided. The method mayinclude positioning a system proximate a biological tissue portion. Insome embodiments, the system may include a body and a conductor, whichmay be configured to be electrically coupled to at least one of a powersource and a detector. In some embodiments, the system may include afirst filament, which may include a base portion and a first tip end. Insome embodiments, the base portion may be electrically coupled to theconductor, and the first filament may be electrically conductive suchthat the first filament is configured to carry an electrical signalbetween the base portion and the first tip end. In some embodiments, themethod may include advancing the first filament toward the biologicaltissue portion such that the first tip end contacts the biologicaltissue portion. In some embodiments, the method may include using thefirst filament to apply and/or receive an electrical signal via thebiological tissue portion.

In some embodiments, a system for applying and/or receiving anelectrical signal may be provided. The system may include a conductivetip, which may in turn include a channel and an outer surface having ashape that approximates a portion of a sphere or cone. In someembodiments, the tip may be sized to fit within a user's ear. In someembodiments, the system may include a base configured to be coupled tothe tip. In some embodiments, the base may include a conductor inelectrical contact with the tip such that an electrical signal may passbetween the base and the tip.

In some embodiments, a method for applying and/or receiving anelectrical signal may be provided. The method may include placing aconductive tip within a user's ear such that the tip contacts a portionof the user's skin within the ear. In some embodiments, the tip mayinclude a channel and may be coupled to a base. In some embodiments, thebase may include a conductor in electrical contact with the tip suchthat an electrical signal may pass between the base and the tip. In someembodiments, the method may include applying and/or receiving anelectrical signal via the portion of the user's skin.

In some embodiments, a method for applying and/or receiving anelectrical signal may be provided. The method may include placing asystem including a body and an electrode in contact with a biologicaltissue portion. In some embodiments, the body may have a deformationcharacteristic such that when a proximal end of the body is fixed and afirst torque is applied to a distal end of the body such that the bodyexhibits 30 degrees of flexion relative to an original state, the bodyretains at least 10 degrees of deformation after the first torque isremoved. In some embodiments, the body may have a flexibilitycharacteristic such that a second torque less than or equal to 2.5Newton-meters produces at least 30 degrees of flexion when the secondtorque is applied to a distal end of the body while a proximal end ofthe body is fixed. In some embodiments, the method may include applyinga force to the body such that the body plastically deforms to adapt to ashape of the biological tissue portion. In some embodiments, the methodmay include using the electrode to apply and/or receive an electricalsignal via the biological tissue portion.

In some embodiments, a system for applying and/or receiving anelectrical signal may be provided. The system may include a body and aconductor, which may be configured to be electrically coupled to atleast one of a power source and a detector. In some embodiments, thesystem may include an electrode, which may include a surface configuredto contact a biological tissue portion and apply and/or receive anelectrical signal to and/or from the biological tissue portion. Thesystem may further include a magnetic element, which may be selectedfrom a group consisting of: a magnet, a toroid, a conductive coil, amagnetic powder, and a magnetic fluid.

In some embodiments, a method of applying and/or receiving an electricalsignal via a biological tissue portion may be provided. The method mayinclude positioning a first system proximate a biological tissueportion. In some embodiments, the system may include a first body and afirst conductor, which may be configured to be electrically coupled toat least one of a power source and a detector. In some embodiments, thefirst system may include a first electrode, which may include a surfaceconfigured to contact a first biological tissue portion and apply and/orreceive an electrical signal to and/or from the first biological tissueportion. In some embodiments, the first system may include a firstmagnetic element, which may be selected from a group consisting of: amagnet, a toroid, a conductive coil, a magnetic powder, and a magneticfluid. In some embodiments, the method may include placing the firstmagnetic element proximate the first biological tissue portion. In someembodiments, the method may include using the first electrode to applyand/or receive an electrical signal via the first biological tissueportion. In some embodiments, a first energy field applied by the firstelectrode may be distributed in a different pattern than the firstenergy field would have been distributed if the first magnetic elementwere not present.

In some embodiments, a device for sending a stimulus or challenge basedon decentralized network parameters is communicated, while said devicealso records the user's modulated response, where the response is afunction of both the time-dependent stimulus and the biological make-upof a person.

In some embodiments, a decentralized network for communicating andreaching consensus on the features within biological data may beconstructed. In some embodiments, a step for anonymizing the biologicaldata may be implemented. In some embodiments, the biological data ismodulated based on a person's biometricity and current networkparameters. In some embodiments, an algorithm for determining theidentity or other general feature of biological data is performed by ahashing protocol spread over multiple decentralized nodes. This hashingprotocol rewards the first node to correctly classify the data in adecentralized way, while penalizing those who make incorrect suggestionsbased on the biological data. In some embodiments, consensus is achievedthrough a voting protocol that may weight some well-trusted nodes morethan others, where these well-trusted nodes may also test the network bysubmitting slight modulations of previously-seen data.

Further variations encompassed within the systems and methods aredescribed in the detailed description of the invention below.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and form partof the specification, illustrate various, non-limiting embodiments ofthe present invention. In the drawings, like reference numbers indicateidentical or functionally similar elements.

FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary system 100 for applying and/or receivingsignals according to some embodiments.

FIGS. 2 and 2A illustrate exemplary systems according to someembodiments.

FIGS. 3-5 illustrate exemplary arrangements for securing filaments to abody according to some embodiments.

FIG. 6 illustrates an exemplary headphone-type system being worn on auser's head according to some embodiments.

FIG. 7 illustrates an exemplary biological tissue portion according tosome embodiments.

FIGS. 8 and 9 illustrate exemplary systems for applying and/or receivingsignals within a user's ear according to some embodiments.

FIG. 10 illustrates exemplary systems for providing plastic deformationaccording to some embodiments.

FIG. 11 illustrates an exemplary method for using a plasticallydeformable system according to some embodiments.

FIGS. 12-17 illustrate exemplary methods for using plasticallydeformable systems according to some embodiments.

FIGS. 18A and 18B illustrate an exemplary system in which magneticelements may be used to alter energy fields according to someembodiments.

FIGS. 19-22 illustrate exemplary methods for applying and/or receivingsignals according to some embodiments.

FIG. 23 illustrates an exemplary system for sharing biologicalinformation into and from a decentralized network.

FIG. 24 illustrates an exemplary system for obtaining a biometric andhuman-detectable signal.

FIG. 25 illustrates an exemplary system for anonymizing biological dataprior to communication over the network.

FIGS. 26A and 26B depict exemplary mechanisms for providing visualand/or auditory stimuli to a user which may modulate the type ofbiological data sent across the network, to the tune required by recentnetwork parameters.

FIG. 27 illustrates an exemplary process for analyzing biological dataover a blockchain.

FIG. 28 illustrates an exemplary method for achieving consensusregarding a sample of biological data.

FIG. 29 illustrates an exemplary circuit for applying a stimulus and/orobtaining biological data.

FIG. 30 illustrates an exemplary method for sending information from ablockchain to a user and back to the blockchain as a mechanism fordecentralized liveness or human detection.

FIG. 31 illustrates an exemplary method 3200 for submitting andprocessing biological data.

FIG. 32 illustrates an exemplary computing device.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

While aspects of the subject matter of the present disclosure may beembodied in a variety of forms, the following description andaccompanying drawings are merely intended to disclose some of theseforms as specific examples of the subject matter. Accordingly, thesubject matter of this disclosure is not intended to be limited to theforms or embodiments so described and illustrated.

Unless defined otherwise, all terms of art, notations and othertechnical terms or terminology used herein have the same meaning as iscommonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which thisdisclosure belongs. All patents, applications, published applicationsand other publications referred to herein are incorporated by referencein their entirety. If a definition set forth in this section is contraryto or otherwise inconsistent with a definition set forth in the patents,applications, published applications, and other publications that areherein incorporated by reference, the definition set forth in thissection prevails over the definition that is incorporated herein byreference.

Unless otherwise indicated or the context suggests otherwise, as usedherein, “a” or “an” means “at least one” or “one or more.”

This description may use relative spatial and/or orientation terms indescribing the position and/or orientation of a component, apparatus,location, feature, or a portion thereof. Unless specifically stated, orotherwise dictated by the context of the description, such terms,including, without limitation, top, bottom, above, below, under, on topof, upper, lower, left of, right of, in front of, behind, next to,adjacent, between, horizontal, vertical, diagonal, longitudinal,transverse, radial, axial, etc., are used for convenience in referringto such component, apparatus, location, feature, or a portion thereof inthe drawings and are not intended to be limiting.

Furthermore, unless otherwise stated, any specific dimensions mentionedin this description are merely representative of an exemplaryimplementation of a device embodying aspects of the disclosure and arenot intended to be limiting.

As used herein, the term “adjacent” refers to being near or adjoining.Adjacent objects can be spaced apart from one another or can be inactual or direct contact with one another. In some instances, adjacentobjects can be coupled to one another or can be formed integrally withone another.

As used herein, the terms “substantially” and “substantial” refer to aconsiderable degree or extent. When used in conjunction with, forexample, an event, circumstance, characteristic, or property, the termscan refer to instances in which the event, circumstance, characteristic,or property occurs precisely as well as instances in which the event,circumstance, characteristic, or property occurs to a closeapproximation, such as accounting for typical tolerance levels orvariability of the embodiments described herein.

As used herein, the terms “optional” and “optionally” mean that thesubsequently described, component, structure, element, event,circumstance, characteristic, property, etc. may or may not be includedor occur and that the description includes instances where thecomponent, structure, element, event, circumstance, characteristic,property, etc. is included or occurs and instances in which it is not ordoes not.

A magnetoelectric effect may occur where a substantial magnetic fieldemanating from a dedicated magnetic device (such as a strong polarizedmagnet, toroid, or other structure) is used to alter or reduce theimpedance of a structure prior to the application of a signal. Amagnetoelectric signal may differ from an electrical signal by thealtered paths it takes through a structure due to the presence of one ormore magnetic devices. Magnetoelectric signals may be particularlyadvantageous when a magnetic device is applied to magnetically-diversemedia such as biological materials, as these materials can have a numberof dispersed magnetic materials that may have impedance affects due tothe application of a dedicated magnetic field. Magnetoelectric signalsmay change internal impedances to direct magnetoelectric signals alongdifferent pathways through the biological structure, affectingparticular internal structures. In this manner, magnetoelectric signalsmay offer superior targeting relative to purely electrical signals.

FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary embodiment of a system 100 for applyingand/or receiving signals. As illustrated in FIG. 1, the system may insome embodiments be arranged to be wrapped around a user's head in amanner similar to a pair of headphones. For example, the system mayinclude a lateral member 110 which may be configured to be wrappedaround a rear of a user's head. On each side of the lateral member 110may be an earpiece 130, an arcuate member 150, and an elbow member 120.The lateral member 110 may be substantially resilient, and may be shapedand sized such that the lateral member 110 is resiliently expanded whenthe system 100 is placed on a user's head. In this manner, the lateralmember 110 may provide a biasing spring force to assist in maintainingengagement between inward facing surfaces of the system 100 and theuser's skin. Likewise, the elbow members may be made from a resilientmaterial to maintain this biasing force. Using resilient materials inthe lateral member and/or elbow members 120 may additionally promoteuser comfort by allowing a mechanism to readily adjust the size and fitof the system.

In some embodiments, the arcuate members 150 may be sized and shaped towrap around a rear of a user's ear. In some embodiments, the earpieces130 may be sized and shaped to be place within a user's ear. In someembodiments, one or more of the earpieces 130 may include speakers toconvey media or other auditory information to a user. Exemplaryembodiments of the earpiece 130 and arcuate member 150 are discussed ingreater detail below.

FIG. 2 illustrates an exemplary embodiment of an arcuate member 150. Insome embodiments, the arcuate members (of left over-ear and rightover-ear pieces), may constitute the only structure of the device,without a wire or other structure connecting them. As illustrated inFIG. 2, the arcuate member may include a body 160 and one or morefilament groups 170. Each filament group 170 may include one or morefilaments. The filaments may be electrically conductive. In someembodiments, the filaments may be carbon fibers. The filaments mayextend outwardly relative to a surface 162 of the body 160 such that thefilaments may contact a biological tissue portion (e.g., a user's skin)when the surface 162 abuts the biological tissue portion. In someembodiments, the filaments may extend outwardly relative to the body insubstantially the same direction such that a tip end of each filamentmay contact a substantially flat tissue portion without changing anorientation of the body. In some embodiments, for example, the arcuatemember 150 may be placed around the rear of a user's ear such that oneor more of the filaments of the filament groups 170 may contact theuser's skin behind the user's ear and below the user's hair line.

In some embodiments, one, two, three, four, five, six, or more filamentgroups may extend from a single body 160. In some embodiments, thefilaments of each group may be arranged substantially linearly or as oneor more continuous groupings. In other embodiments, the filaments ofeach group may be substantially curvilinear, and the curvature of thefilaments may optionally substantially match a curvature of the body160. For example, the curvature of a filament group may be selected tosubstantially match the curvature of an arcuate member to which thefilament group is coupled.

FIG. 2A illustrates an exemplary embodiment of a system such as thosedescribed above and below. The system may include a body 210, anelectrode 220, a conductor 240, and a power source/detector 240. Thebody 210, electrode 220, conductor 240, and power source/detector 240may be as described with respect to the other embodiments describedherein. For example, the body 210 may optionally be shaped to bedisposed around or within a user's ear, or alternatively, may beconfigured to be deformable to be wrapped around a portion of a user'sbody. Likewise, the electrode 220 may optionally be embodied as one ormore conductive filaments or any other suitable arrangement.

FIG. 3 illustrates an exemplary embodiment in which filament groups 170a, 170 b may be retained in a body 160 via use of anchor 180. AlthoughFIG. 3 depicts this technique being used in a body 160 such as thatillustrated in the embodiment of FIG. 2, this is purely for simplicityof explanation and should not be construed as limiting in any way.Rather, this anchoring technique can be used in any suitable system aswill be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reviewing the presentdisclosure. As illustrated in FIG. 3, one or more filaments may bedisposed around an anchor 180, which may be inserted and retained withina cavity 190 in the body 160. In some embodiments, a portion of aconductor 194 (e.g., a wire, circuitry, or other conductive member) maybe disposed within the cavity 190 in a position such that the conductor194 may contact a portion of the filaments or anchor. In this manner,signals may be transmitted from the conductor to the filament and thento the tissue, and/or from the tissue to the filament and then to theconductor. The conductor 194 may be partially enclosed within the body160 and may extend through the length of the body 160 to couple thefilament groups 170 to a power source or detector (see, e.g., FIG. 2A).

In some embodiments, a magnetic element 186 may optionally be disposedwithin the anchor 180. In some embodiments, the magnetic element includea magnet, a toroid, a conductive coil, a magnetic powder, a magneticfluid, or any other suitable arrangement for generating magnetic fields.In some embodiments, a magnetic element 186 may be placed within thebody 160. For example, one or more magnetic elements 186 may be placedadjacent to one or more cavities 190. In some embodiments, the magneticelement 186 may be arranged such that it will be proximate thebiological tissue portion when a filament contacts the biological tissueportion such that an energy field applied by the filament is distributedin a different pattern than the energy field would have been distributedif the magnetic element were not present. In this manner, energy may bedirected along different pathways through the biological structure,thereby targeting desired internal structures.

In some embodiments, the conductor may be coupled (directly orindirectly) to a power source or other source ofelectrical/magnetoelectric/vibratory/electromagnetic stimulus. In thismanner, a stimulus may be applied to the conductor, which may betransmitted to the filament groups 170 (optionally via one or moreadditional elements such as circuitry within a body 160 and/or an anchor180 as discussed below), and then to a biological tissue portion. Insome embodiments, the conductor may be coupled to a detector ormeasurement circuit. In this manner, electrical activity within theuser's body (e.g., within a central nervous system, peripheral nervoussystem, or musculature) may be transmitted from a biological tissueportion to the filament groups 170, to the conductor (optionally via oneor more additional elements such as circuitry within a body 160 and/oran anchor 180 as discussed below), and then to the detector. Thus, thesystem may be used for stimulation, measurement, or both.

FIG. 4A illustrates an exemplary embodiment of an anchor 180. Here, thefilament groups 170 a, 170 b are shown including a plurality ofindividual filaments 172. In some embodiments, a given filament mayinclude a first tip end 172 a and a base portion 172 c. In someembodiments, the filament may further include a second tip end 172 b.The tip ends 172 a, 172 b may extend outwardly from the anchor 180 (andthe body 160 when the anchor 180 is retained within the body) such thatthe tip ends 172 a, 172 b are arranged to contact a biological tissueportion when the system is in contact with a user's body. In someembodiments, the base portion 172 c may be arranged between the firsttip end 172 a and the second tip end 172 b. In some embodiments, thebase portion 172 c may be disposed around a portion of the anchor 180.For example, the base portion 172 c may wrap around a lower portion ofthe anchor between the two tip ends 172 a, 172 b. In some embodiments,the base portion may be arranged to contact a conductor, such as theconductor 194 illustrated in FIG. 3. In some embodiments, the anchor 180may include a recess 184 which may be shaped to receive a portion of theconductor 194.

As illustrated in FIGS. 4A and 4B (and also with reference to FIGS. 3and 5), in some embodiments, the anchor 180 may be configured to besnap-fit into a cavity 190 in the body 160. For example, the anchor 180may include one or more projections 182 a, 182 b. The projections 182 a,182 b may be resilient members. Moreover, the projections 182 a, 182 bmay be sized and shaped to be placed within recesses 192 a, 192 b in thecavity 190 (see, e.g., FIG. 5). In some embodiments, the projections 182and recesses 192 may have complementary shapes. In some embodiments, thearrangement of projections and recesses may be inverted relative to thearrangement shown in FIGS. 3-5, such that recesses are instead providedon the anchor 180 and projections are provided in the cavity 190. Thisarrangement similarly permits a resilient snap-fitting function.

FIG. 4B illustrates another exemplary embodiment of an anchor 180. Thisembodiment includes features similar to that illustrated in FIG. 4A,including filament groups 170, filaments having first tip ends 172 a,second tip ends 172 b, and base portions 172 c, and projections 182 a,182 b. As illustrated in FIG. 4B, a magnetic element 186 may be disposedwithin the anchor 180. In some embodiments, the magnetic element includea magnet, a toroid, a conductive coil, a magnetic powder, a magneticfluid, or any other suitable arrangement for generating magnetic fields.FIGS. 4A and 4B also illustrate embodiments in which the projections 182may be provided at an end of an anchor 180, such that the projectionsmay be disposed beyond the portion of the anchor upon which thefilaments extend. In this manner, interference between the snap-fittingmechanism and the filaments may be avoided.

In some embodiments, the anchor 180 may be formed from a conductivematerial. One exemplary material that has been found to perform well isconductive plastics, such as conductive PLA, and conductive siliconemade from chopped conductive microfibers, but other materials may alsobe used. By forming the anchor from conductive material, the need todirectly contact a conductor in the body 160 to the filaments may beobviated. For example, a conductor may instead contact a portion of theconductive anchor 180, which may in turn contact the filaments. In thismanner, the filaments may be electrically coupled to the conductor viathe anchor 180. In some embodiments, a circuit board may be arrangedwithin the body such that electrical contacts extend to each cavity 190at a position where the anchor 180 may be electrically coupled with thecircuit board upon placement into the cavity 190. In some embodiments,permitting electrical current to flow through the anchor mayadditionally permit manipulation of a magnetic field generated back themagnetic element 186.

FIG. 5 illustrates an exemplary embodiment of a cavity 190. As explainedabove, the cavity 190 may be shaped to receive an anchor 180. Forexample, the anchor 180 and cavity 190 may have complementary shapes andsizes. In some embodiments, the cavity may include recesses 192 a, 192b, which may be sized and shaped to receive projections on the anchor180. In some embodiments, the cavity 190 may include a conductor 194.The conductor 194 may be arranged within the cavity 190 such that it maycontact filaments 170 and/or the anchor 180.

As will be apparent from FIGS. 2-5 and the accompanying disclosure, anynumber of anchors may be coupled to any number of recesses on a givenbody. For example, the arcuate portion 150 shown in FIG. 2 depicts twoanchors operatively attached to two recesses, with the result that fourfilament groups 170 are provided. Any desired number and arrangement offilament groups and/or snap-fitting arrangements may be used.

FIG. 6 illustrates an exemplary embodiment of a headphone-type system100 being worn on a user's head 600. In the illustrated embodiment, anarcuate portion 150 is disposed behind a user's ear 610. One or moregroups of filaments 170 may be in contact with a biological tissueportion 620. In the illustrated example, this biological tissue portion620 may be a portion of the user's skin behind the user's ear 610. Asshown in FIG. 6, the earpiece 130 may be disposed within the user's ear610 at the same time that the filaments 170 are in contact with thebiological tissue portion 620. In this manner, the system may play mediaand provide stimulus and/or measure electrical activity in the user'sbody simultaneously.

FIG. 7 illustrates an exemplary biological tissue portion 620. As shown,the biological tissue portion 620 may be a portion of a user's skin. Inother embodiments, the system may be placed in contact with otherportions of a user's body, such as underneath the skin or in contactwith organs or muscles. Where the biological tissue portion 620 is aportion of the user's skin, it may be a skin portion behind a user'sear. In other embodiments, skin elsewhere on a user's body may beselected (see, e.g., FIGS. 12-17).

As shown in FIG. 7, a biological tissue portion may include one or morepores 630. Skin pores, for example, typically have a diameter on theorder of 10-50 microns. The tip ends of the filaments (or the entirelength of the filaments) may have a width of less than 50 microns. Insome embodiments, the filaments may have a width less than 15 microns,less than 10 microns, or less than 5 microns. Thus, one or morefilaments 171 a, 171 b, 171 c, may be partially disposed within a pore630. In some embodiments, the tip ends of one or more filaments may bedisposed within the pore 630 when the system 100 is placed on a user'shead as illustrated in FIG. 6. In some embodiments, two, three, four,five, six, or more filaments may be partially disposed within a singlepore 630 at a time. Still other filaments may contact an externalsurface of the user's skin. By contacting the user's skin and/or byextending within a pore, excellent electrical contact may be establishedbetween the filaments and the user's body. Often, the first layer ofskin represents a substantial portion of the impedance between anexternal electrode and a portion of a user's body to be measured orstimulated. By improving contact and/or bypassing this first layer ofskin, impedance may be substantially reduced. This provides animprovement to signal-to-noise ratio and improves safety by permittingstimulation to be applied at lower voltages.

FIG. 8 depicts an exemplary embodiment of a conductive tip 800 that maybe used, for example, to apply or receive signals within a user's ear.The conductive tip 800 may be made from a conductive material, includingbut not limited to conductive plastics. In some embodiments, theconductive material may have a modulus of elasticity less than 3.5 GPa.By employing a material having a modulus of elasticity in this range,elastic flexibility may be provided, which may advantageously promotecomfort and better retain the tip 800 in the user's ear. In someembodiments, the tip 800 may include an outer surface 810. The outersurface may be shaped to engage an inner portion of a user's ear. Forexample the outer surface 810 may approximate a portion of a sphere orcone. In some embodiments, the conductive tip 800 may include a channel820. The channel may be substantially centered within the outer surfaceand may define a hollow interior through which air and/or sound wavesmay pass. In some embodiments, an optional conductor 830 may be arrangedto contact a portion of the conductive tip 800, such as the outersurface 810 and/or channel 820.

FIG. 9 depicts an exemplary embodiment of a system for applying and/orreceiving a signal within a user's ear. The system may include aconductive tip 800, as generally described with respect to FIG. 8, and abase 900. The base 900 may include a body 910, which may house a speakerand/or other circuitry. The base 900 may also include a magneticelement, which may be as described in any of the embodiments discussedherein. The base 900 may further include a projection 920 which may besized and shaped to engage a portion of the channel 820. A speaker maybe arranged within the base 900 such that the speaker may transmit soundwaves through the hollow interior of the channel 820 when the projection920 is engaged to the channel 820. An electrical contact 930 may beelectrically coupled, directly or indirectly, to a conductor 940 (e.g.,a wire). The electrical contact 930 may be placed along a portion of theprojection 920 such that the electrical contact 920 engages a wall ofthe channel 820 when the channel is placed over the projection 920. Theconductor, 940, may extend along the internal cavity of the body, 910.

To facilitate this engagement, the channel 820 (and optionally theentire conductive tip 800) may be formed from a resilient material andslightly undersized relative to the projection 920 and/or electricalcontact 930. For example, an inner diameter of the channel may be lessthan an outer diameter of the projection 920 and/or electrical contact930. In this manner, when the channel 820 is engaged to the projection920, the channel 820 may expand slightly, presenting a biasing force topromote engagement between the channel 820, the projection 920, and theelectrical contact 930. This biasing force may advantageously facilitatemechanical coupling between the base 900 and the conductive tip 800.Additionally, this biasing force may promote a reliable, low-impedanceelectrical coupling between the contact 930 and the conductive tip 800.

The conductive tip 800 may be a disposable unit. In the event that thetip 800 becomes damaged or otherwise exceeds its useful life, the tip800 may be removed from the base 800 and replaced by another tip 800. Insome embodiments, conductive filaments 840 such as those described abovemay optionally be embedded within the outer surface 810 of the tip 800.Permitting replacement of the tip 800 may also be advantageous in caseswhere the filaments become damaged, lose efficacy, or where the userotherwise desires to replace the tip or filaments.

FIG. 10 illustrates an exemplary embodiment of a deformable system 1000.In some embodiments, the system may include a body 1060 and a deformablemember 1020. The deformable member 1020 may extend through all or aportion of the length of the body 1060, thereby providing a desireddeformation characteristic along a selected portion of the body 1060. Insome embodiments, the system may further include one or more electrodes1070, which may optionally be embodied as filament groups 1070 or anyother suitable conductive interface. In some embodiments, a conductormay couple to or be placed within the body 1060. In some embodiments,the conductor may be electrically coupled to the electrodes 1070. Insome embodiments, the body may be made from a conductive material suchas conductive plastics. In this manner, the entire body may act as anelectrode through which signals may be applied or received. In otherembodiments, one or more selected portions, such as optional filamentgroups 1070, may act as electrodes. In such embodiments, the remainingsurface of the body 1060 may optionally be non-conductive. In someembodiments, the deformable member 1020 may provide improved plasticdeformation and shape-retention characteristics. In some embodiments,the material of the body 1060 may be selected to provide the desiredplastic deformation characteristics. In such embodiments, the deformablemember 1020 may be optionally omitted.

In some embodiments, the deformation characteristic of the body may besuch that when a proximal end of the body is fixed and a torque isapplied to a distal end of the body such that the body exhibits 30degrees of flexion relative to an original state, the body retains atleast 10 degrees of deformation after the torque is removed. In someembodiments, the body 1060 may have a flexibility characteristic suchthat a torque less than or equal to 2.5 Newton-meters applied to adistal end of the body when a proximal end of the body is fixed producesat least 30 degrees of flexion. Permanent deformation and flexibilitymay also be desired in any of the embodiments discussed herein, and theselection of such a permanent deformation characteristic may also beapplied to, e.g., the body 160 discussed above.

FIG. 11 illustrates an exemplary method 1100 for applying and/orreceiving an electrical signal. Method 1100 may be used with any of thesystem embodiments described herein, including, for example, thedeformable system embodiments described above with respect to FIG. 10.In step 1102, a system including a body and electrode may be placed incontact with a biological tissue portion. In some embodiments, the bodymay have a deformation characteristic such that when a proximal end ofthe body is fixed and a first torque is applied to a distal end of thebody such that the body exhibits 30 degrees of flexion relative to anoriginal state, the body retains at least 10 degrees of deformationafter the first torque is removed. In some embodiments, the body mayhave a flexibility characteristic such that a second torque less than orequal to 1.3 Newton-meters produces at least 30 degrees of flexion whenthe second torque is applied. In step 1104, a force may be applied tothe body such that the body may plastically deform to adapt to a shapeof the biological tissue portion. For example, the force may result inthe body being deformed from a first substantially straightconfiguration and a second substantially bent configuration. In someembodiments, the applying the force in step 1104 may include at leastpartially wrapping the body around a portion of the user's body. In someembodiments, the body may be wrapped around a user's ear, arm, hand,finger, leg, foot, toe, head, neck, back (e.g., lower back), pelvicfloor, or penis.

In step 1106, the electrode may be used to apply and/or receive anelectrical signal via the biological tissue portion. In someembodiments, for example, a stimulus may be transmitted from aconductor, to the electrode, and then to the biological tissue portion.In some embodiments, electrical activity within the user's body may bereceived at the electrode and transmitted through the conductor to adetector for measuring and analyzing the received signal. In someembodiments, stimulus and measurement may be performed simultaneously orin alternation.

FIG. 12 illustrates an exemplary aspect 1200 of the method 1100described above with respect to FIG. 11. In some embodiments, the body1060 may be aligned along a user's pelvic floor 1210 with the body 1060wrapped around one of the legs. Any number of electrodes 1070 may bealigned along the deformable body 1060. The body 1060 may be applied insuch a way that, after wrapping around a body part, the body isintertwined with itself in a tie or knot 1220.

FIG. 13 illustrates an exemplary aspect 1300 of the methods describedabove with respect to FIGS. 11 and 12. In some embodiments, the systemmay include more than one of the systems 1000, the bodies of which maybe aligned in two loops around the upper thighs. The deformable systems1000 may be applied in such a way that, after wrapping around a bodypart, the body is intertwined with itself in a tie or knot 1120. Thelocation one of the electrodes in the body systems 1000 may be alignedon the pelvic floor 1210, optionally with one or more than one electrodeat this location to ensure functional connectivity. However, any numberof electrodes may be aligned along the deformable bodies 1060.

FIG. 14 illustrates an exemplary aspect 1400 of the method describedabove with respect to FIG. 11. In some embodiments, deformable system1000 may be wrapped around a user's penis 1410 with one of theelectrodes optionally aligned at this location.

FIGS. 15A-15C illustrates exemplary aspects 1500 a, 1500 b, 1500 c ofthe method described above with respect to FIG. 11. In some embodiments,the body 1060 may be wrapped around a user's hand, wrist, or arm 1510 a,leg 1500 b, or ankle 1510 c. In some embodiments, multiple coils may beused around the member (also applicable to the other methods describedherein), to ensure greater stability against the desired body region.The body 1000 may be applied with any number of electrodes alignedaround any region surrounding the wrist. In some embodiments, adeformable system 1000 may be applied in a coil-like arrangement withone or more electrodes arranged along the vagus nerve. In someembodiments, a deformable system may be applied in a coil-likearrangement with one or more electrodes arranged along or other desiredvascular and/or nervous entities.

FIG. 16 illustrates an exemplary aspect 1600 of the method describedabove with respect to FIG. 11. In some embodiments, the deformablesystem 1000 may be applied to regions known to increase the likelihoodof orgasm. For example, the system may be applied between the thoracicand sacral spinal regions, including the lumbar region 1610. Anelectrode may be applied within regions T8-L1. The system 1000 may beapplied with the twist arrangement described above.

FIG. 17 illustrates an exemplary aspect 1700 of the method describedabove with respect to FIG. 11. In some embodiments, the deformablesystem 1000 may be applied around a bicep in a coil-like arrangement.One or more electrodes may be arranged closer to the shoulder 1710.

FIGS. 18A and 18B illustrate an exemplary system 1800 in which magneticelements may be arranged according to various preferred embodiments. Inthe embodiment depicted in FIG. 18A, a body 1860 may include one or moreelectrodes 1870, which may optionally be embodied as filament groups.The electrodes 1870 may optionally be coupled to the body 1860 using asnap-fit anchoring arrangement as described above, and the anchors mayoptionally include magnetic elements. In some embodiments, magneticelements 1810 a-c (e.g., toroids, magnets, magnetic fluids, vibratorymagnetic systems) may be positioned along the length of the body 1860.For example, the magnetic elements may be static magnetic structures.Each magnetic element may have a polarity, and the polarities of themagnetic elements may be arranged in particular arrangements beneficialto manipulating any biological tissue it is arranged upon. Althoughthree magnetic elements 1810 a, 1810 b, 1810 c are depicted, anysuitable number of magnetic elements may be used. Further, the magneticelements may be similar or dissimilar in shape. For example, asillustrated in FIG. 18A, each of the magnetic elements 1810 a-c may becylindrical. In another embodiment illustrated in FIG. 18B, magneticelements 1810 a and 1810 c may be cylindrical, and magnetic element 1810b may be pyramidal. The choice of arrangements and shapes may beselected to alter the flux through the biological tissue in between.

Because the exemplary system 1800 may have a corresponding pair (e.g.,one system may be applied around the left ear, while a second system maybe applied over the right ear), these two systems may have their magnetsarranged in a way that compounds their effect in shaping thedistribution of applied and/or received energy. For example, on the leftear, magnetic elements 1810 a, 1810 b may have their north sidesdirected into the skin, while 1810 c may have its south side directedtoward the skin. On the right ear, magnetic elements 1810 a, 1810 b mayhave their south sides directed into the skin, while magnetic element1810 c may have its north side directed toward the skin. Thesepolarities may also be reversed (i.e. each north in the previousdescription being made south, and each south in the previous descriptionbeing made north). A different system may have all the north sidesdirected toward the skin over the left side with all the south sidesdirected toward the skin on the right side, or vice versa.

FIG. 19 illustrates an exemplary method 1900 for applying and orreceiving an electrical signal via a biological tissue portion. In step1902, a system (such as any of the systems described in any of theembodiments herein) may be placed proximate a biological tissue portion.Taking a headphone-type system as an example, the system may be placedaround a user's head. In step 1904, a filament on the system may beadvanced toward the biological tissue portion such that a tip end of thefilament contacts the biological tissue portion. In the headphone-typesystem, for example, the arcuate members may be placed around a user'sears and situated such that the filaments contact the user's skin behindthe user's ears. Where multiple filaments are provided, step 1904 mayresult in two or more filament tip ends being placed in contact with thebiological tissue portion. In some embodiments, multiple filaments mayextend in substantially the same direction such that the tip ends may beplaced in contact with a flat surface without changing an orientation ofthe system body.

In step 1906, the filament may be used to apply and/or receive anelectrical signal via the biological tissue portion. In someembodiments, for example, an electrical stimulus may be applied to thebiological tissue portion via the filament. In some embodiments,electrical activity within the body may be received by the filament andrelayed to a detector for performing measurements and analysis. In someembodiments, stimulus and measurements may be performed simultaneouslyor in alternation.

In some embodiments, the step of advancing the first filament toward thebiological tissue portion may include disposing at least a portion of atip end of the filament within a pore of the user's skin. In embodimentswhere multiple filaments are provided, a first filament may be at leastpartially disposed within a first pore and a second filament may be atleast partially disposed within a second pore. Additionally, more thanone filament may be at least partially disposed within a single pore. Insome embodiments, the method 1900 may include an optional step ofapplying a force to the body such that the body plastically deforms toadapt to a shape of the biological tissue portion. For example, wherethe body is shaped as an arcuate member, a force could be applied tobetter adapt the shape of the arcuate member to the contours of theuser's ear. In some examples, applying the force may include at leastpartially wrapping the body around a portion of the user's body. Forexample, the body could be wrapped around a user's ear, arm, hand,finger, leg, foot, toe, head, neck, lower back, pelvic floor, or penis.In some embodiments, applying the force may result in the body deformingfrom a first configuration that is substantially straight to a secondconfiguration that is substantially bent.

In some embodiments, a first magnetic element may be placed proximatethe biological tissue portion such that an energy field applied by thefilament(s) is distributed in a different pattern than the energy fieldwould have been distributed if the first magnetic element were notpresent. In some embodiments, a second system may be provided proximatea second biological tissue portion. In the headphone-type example, afirst system may be placed on one ear, and a second system may be placedon the other ear. The systems may be but need not be mechanically orelectrically coupled. In some embodiments, a first magnetic element ofthe first system may be placed proximate a first biological tissueportion, and a second magnetic element of the second system may beplaced proximate a second biological tissue portion. In someembodiments, the north-south poles of the magnetic elements may beplaced such that opposite poles are directed toward one another (e.g.,the north pole of the first magnetic element is directed toward thesouth pole of the second magnetic element, or vice versa). Arranging themagnetic elements in this manner may generate a magnetic force which mayassist in retaining the systems in the desired position on the user'sbody. In other embodiments, the like poles may be directed towardone-another.

FIG. 20 illustrates an exemplary method 2000 for applying and/orreceiving an electrical signal. Method 2000 may be performed using asystem substantially as described with respect to FIGS. 8 and 9. In step2002, a conductive tip may be placed within a user's ear such that thetip contacts a portion of the user's skin. In some embodiments, the tipmay include a channel and may be coupled to a base. In some embodiments,the base may include a conductor in electrical contact with the tip suchthat an electrical signal may pass between the base and the tip. Placingthe conductive tip within the user's ear may result in an outer surfaceof the conductive tip resiliently deforming to adapt to a shape of theuser's ear in which the conductive tip is placed.

In step 2004, an electrical signal may be applied and/or received viathe portion of the user's skin. In some embodiments, for example, astimulus may be transmitted from a conductor, to the conductive tip, andthen to the user's skin. In some embodiments, electrical activity withinthe user's body may be received at the conductive tip and transmittedthrough the conductor to a detector for measuring and analyzing thereceived signal. In some embodiments, a dedicated magnetic device mayaffect the impedance of biological tissues and the electromagneticpathways through them by means of the magnetoelectric effect. In someembodiments, stimulus and measurement may be performed simultaneously orin alternation. In some embodiments, a speaker may be arranged in thebase, and sound may be transmitted through a hollow interior of thechannel to the user's ear at the same time that stimulus and/ormeasurement are performed.

In some embodiments, the base may have a projection and the conductivetip may have a channel as generally described above with respect toFIGS. 8 and 9. In some embodiments, the method 2000 may includeadvancing the channel over a portion of the projection to engage theconductive tip to the base. In some embodiments, the channel may beresiliently deformed as the channel is advanced over the projection,and/or an elastic force may bias the channel into engagement with theprojection and/or an electrical contact on the projection. In someembodiments, the method 1200 may include replacing the conductive tip.For example, the method 2000 may include removing the conductive tipfrom the base. The method 2000 may further include placing a secondconductive tip on the base.

FIG. 21 illustrates an exemplary method 2100 for applying and/orreceiving an electrical signal. Method 2100 may be used in combinationwith any of the system embodiments discussed herein. In step 2102, afirst system may be placed proximate a biological tissue portion. Insome embodiments, the first system may include one or more of a firstbody, a first conductor, a first electrode, and a first magneticelement. In some embodiments, the first magnetic element may be one ormore of a magnet, a toroid, a conductive coil, a magnetic powder, and amagnetic fluid. In step 2104, the first magnetic element may be placedproximate the first biological tissue portion. Step 2104 can be but neednot be a separate step from 2102. For example, where the magneticelement is rigidly affixed to a portion of the first system, placing theportion of the first system proximate the biological tissue portion maynaturally result in the magnetic element being placed proximate thebiological tissue portion. That steps 2102 and 2104 are illustrated astwo steps therefore should not be interpreted to exclude embodimentswhere performing one of the steps naturally results in the other beingperformed—rather, the instant disclosure is intended to expresslyinclude such embodiments.

In step 2106, the first electrode may be used to apply and/or receive anelectrical signal via the biological tissue portion. In someembodiments, for example, a stimulus may be transmitted from aconductor, to the first electrode, and then to the biological tissueportion. In some embodiments, electrical activity within the user's bodymay be received at the first electrode and transmitted through theconductor to a detector for measuring and analyzing the received signal.In some embodiments, stimulus and measurement may be performedsimultaneously or in alternation. In some embodiments, a first energyfield applied and/or received by the first electrode may be distributedin a different pattern than the first energy field would have beendistributed if the first magnetic element were not present.

In some embodiments, a second system may be placed a second biologicaltissue portion. In some embodiments, the second system may include oneor more of a second body, a second conductor, a second electrode, and asecond magnetic element. The second magnetic element may be one or moreof a magnet, a toroid, a conductive coil, a magnetic powder, and amagnetic fluid. In some embodiments, the second magnetic element may beplaced proximate the second biological tissue portion. In someembodiments, the second electrode may be used to apply and/or receive anelectrical signal via the second biological tissue portion. In someembodiments, a second energy field applied and/or received by the secondelectrode may be distributed in a different pattern than the secondenergy field would have been distributed if the second magnetic elementwere not present. In some embodiments, the north-south poles of themagnetic elements may be placed such that opposite poles are directedtoward one another (e.g., the north pole of the first magnetic elementis directed toward the south pole of the second magnetic element, orvice versa). Arranging the magnetic elements in this manner may generatea magnetic force which may assist in retaining the systems in thedesired position on the user's body. In other embodiments, the likepoles may be directed toward one-another.

FIG. 22 illustrates an exemplary method 2200 for applying and/orreceiving an electrical signal. Method 2200 may be used in combinationwith any of the system embodiments discussed herein. In step 2202, asystem 1000 as described above with respect to FIG. 10 is firststraightened to a standard position if it has been set beforehand. Then,in step 2204, the system 1000 is wrapped around the desired area whereit may be applied. In step 2206, this wrapping may continue for n numberof turns, where n may be fractional turns some value greater than 1.After the wire has been pressed adjacent to the skin, it may be tied toensure greater stability in 2208.

One application for enhanced electrode performance comes in the form ofa decentralized biometric internet. Since its inception the internet hasbeen based around a one-CPU-one-user protocol, meaning a single personcan program multiple machines to simulate multiple active users. Such aphenomenon is the reason elections are administered in-person, whyTwitter followers, Amazon reviews, and Facebook likes are for sale, andwhy political and economic discussions on the internet are not to betrusted. If there was an area of the internet associated with a “livebiometric,” the phenomenon of fake or purchased accounts would beseverely debilitated. To date, the usual inconvenience of wetting theskin has made electrodes unsuitable for an average consumer. Havingimproved electrodes allows us to add an additionally secure element ofbiometricity to cybersecurity, that has not yet been tapped by techcompanies and the government.

Google's “I'm not a robot” task, also known as reCAPTCHA, is the currentstandard for liveness detection or human detection in modern cybersecurity. Liveness detection, which can also be interpreted as humandetection, is a method for to test whether a person is a user is a liveperson or a bot. Unlike the reCAPTCHA system, signals over a biometricinternet may exhibit an element of biometricity. Thus, these signals mayhuman-detect or liveness-detect a person, and they may also identifythat person. This enables stronger security through a combinedidentification and human detection protocol.

Biometrics that exhibit both identification and human detectableattributes are rare. Voice data, video recordings of facial expressions,and skin potentials have shown a high degree of biometricity as well asa liveness detectability. These are special biometrics because they alsoexhibit liveness. Unlike DNA, a fingerprint, or iris snapshots, whichare effectively static files that can be stolen or faked, “live” or“human-detectable” biometrics can be modulated based on an inputstimulus or “challenge”. If such a stimulus originates from adecentralized network's recent parameters, a high degree of confidencemay be placed in a determination that the recorded signal originated asrecently as the network's parameters that were used to generate it. Thisimplies that, if the signal were faked, the attacker would only have Xamount of time to have generated the signal, where X is the time sincethe signal was generated.

For example, a recent random number generated from a block's hash withina blockchain may be translated into a waveform with a specific patternof noise based on the block hash. As every block is associated with apublicly verifiable timestamp, the resulting waveform of a block thatoccurred n blocks ago is a time-dependent signal. It is associated withan event that occurred X time ago. This waveform may then be injectedover a person's skin, and recorded somewhere else on the body, usingsuitable electrodes. The recorded signal is then both a function of theoriginal random number and the skin make-up of a person; or, a person'sbiometricity. As another example, same random number may be used togenerate a video telling a person to blink or make a facial expressionat a specific time point. If their eye-blinks or facial expressioncorresponds with the indicators given by the random number, then theywere generated as recently as the random number was generated. Finally,a similar audio or audiovisual signal can be used to tell a person tospeak a specific string of random words based on said random number.Assuming that the random number is large enough that constructing thesesignals in advance is unattainable, and that simulating the biometricityof these signals is too difficult for a motivated attacker, the securityof a one-person-one-vote internet can be preserved.

Aside from live biometrics, other blockchain protocols such as uPorthave attempted to solve the one-CPU-one-vote issue using purely digitaland/or static biometric means. Both of these techniques are more easilyfaked than a liveness-detectable biometric internet. In the solelydigital network, the network is duped by creating fake accounts acrossthe given websites used to verify a particular person. In the staticbiometric system, a fingerprint submitted by a user can be duplicated orfaked by a privileged party. The threat in these situations are not thatthe average user will perform these attacks against the network.Instead, it is that someone with a large amount of pre-existing power orwealth in a given decentralized network (or, in Google's case, acentralized network) will find this to be a more cheaper method ofabusing or monetizing the network than more traditional means of attackor profiting.

Creating a one-person-one-vote network would increase the level of trustheld by each node who is involved in the network. By increasing trust,less verification is needed across the decentralized network, resultingin more efficient computations. As such, although many decentralizednetworks such as blockchains may have trouble scaling computationswithin decentralized programs such as smart contracts, aone-person-one-vote internet would result in cheaper and more efficientcomputations for scaling to a global blockchain.

FIG. 23 illustrates an exemplary embodiment of a system 2300 for sharingbiological information into a network and receiving a response based onthat data. In some embodiments, a user 2302 may employ a user device2301 (which in some embodiments may be a headphone device or any of theother electrode devices described above) to record biological data. Thebiological data may be, for example, brainwave data, voice data, facialexpression data, or any other suitable biological metric. The biologicaldata may be transmitted wirelessly 2303 to a wireless device 2304, whichmay be, for example, a phone, computer, tablet, or any other suitablecomputing device. The user device 2301 may communicate with the wirelessdevice 2304 via a short-range communication protocol, such as Bluetooth,RFID, or NFC. The wireless device 2304 may optionally be configured torun blockchain-compatible application software 2305 which may be storedin memory accessible by a processor of the wireless device 2304. In someembodiments, the user device 2301 may also include a processor andmemory. In some embodiments, the user device 2301 and wireless device2304 may together define a local user system within the possession ofthe user. Other devices, such as cameras, microphones, positiondetectors, virtual reality devices, etc. may also be included within thelocal user system.

The wireless device 2304 may transmit the biological data to a node2306. The wireless device may communicate with the node 2306 via longerrange radiofrequency transmissions and/or wired communication channels.The node 2306 may be a server, dedicated computer, or any other suitablecomputing device. The node 2306 may include a processor and a memorywhich may store network software 2307 which, when executed by theprocessor, allows the node to perform data processing and networkfunctions as described below. In some embodiments, the node 2306 may bea server in a centralized network that collects and analyzes data from aplurality of user devices 2301. The analysis may be used forauthentication, liveness detection, and/or identification as describedherein.

In some embodiments, the node 2306 may transmit the biological data or aparameter derived therefrom to one or more nodes 2309 within adecentralized network, after which a decision may be made based on thebiological data. After a certain length of time 2310, a communicatornode 2308 may then transmit a decision message based on the data back tothe original user's wireless device 2304. In some embodiments, thecommunicator node 2308 may be the node to which the user's biologicaldata was initially uploaded. In some cases, the node to which thebiological data was initially uploaded may have been selected due toproximity, available bandwidth, or present connection to the user'swireless device 2304. In such cases, it may be advantageous to relay thedecision message back to the wireless device using the same node.

In response to receiving the decision message, the wireless device 2304may present a visual, auditory, audiovisual or some sort of stimulatorysignal 2311 to the user based on the input data. In some embodiments,the decision message may include an indication that the user's identityhas or has not been verified. In some embodiments, successfulverification may allow the user to access privileges associated withtheir account, such as conducting transactions using currency associatedwith the account, updating account settings, and/or performingprivileged actions such as voting or transmitting and/or receivingrestricted communications. In some embodiments, successful verificationmay allow a user to update the security settings to include a digitalkey associated with a new device. For example, after an initialsuccessful log-in using biological data, a digital key associated withthe wireless device used for the successful log-in may be associatedwith the user's account so that subsequent log-in attempts from thatdevice do not require submission and verification of biological data. Inthe event that the user later wishes to log into their account from anew device, biological data could again be used to verify that the userof the new device is indeed the account owner. In this manner, the riskof losing access to an account, such as by misplacing a mobile device,may be substantially reduced. In some embodiments, certain types ofaccount transactions may require two-factor authentication. For example,after a first successful identification transaction is complete, a usercould be required to enter a passcode or submit additional specializedbiological data, such as brainwaves collected while the user is thinkinga predetermined passcode thought.

In some embodiments, a user may receive a reward for submittingbiological data. For example, an entity may elect to pay users (usingstandard currency or cryptocurrency) for submitting data while receivingcertain stimuli (such as an advertisement or political message). In someembodiments, the entity may upload the desired stimuli and a specifiedincentive structure to a network. The network may in turn transmit thedesired stimulus information to the user, optionally along with anindication associated with a recent block hash. The user may thenreceive the stimulus and upload their biological data for verificationon the network. Upon successful verification of the biological data, theuser may receive a notification that the reward has been credited totheir account. The verified biological data may be transmitted to theentity paying the incentive along with a notification that the incentivehas been paid. Optionally, anonymity of the user and/or the entity maybe preserved throughout this process.

FIG. 24 illustrates an exemplary system 2400 for obtaining a biometricsignal. As discussed below, exemplary biometric signals may includeauditory, video, facial, and/or voice data, and/orstimulation/vibratory, and/or recording signals that may pass through anelectrode in proximity to the skin. In some embodiments, a plurality ofdata blocks 2401 may each contain a mostly-random identifier known as ablock-hash 2404. The block-hash may be a random number within a verylarge space, such as a random value from 1 to 2^256. Once a large numberof blocks have been added to the end of the chain, the data stored in ablock that occurred n blocks ago can be trusted with a high degree ofconfidence. A highly-trusted block which occurred n blocks ago 2402 mayhave a mostly-unique identifier or block-hash 2403, which can be inputinto a function 2405. The function 2405 may translate this random numberinto a brief stimulatory or “challenge” signal 2406. In someembodiments, the function 2405 may generate a single output for anygiven input within a range of possible input values. Further, thefunction 2405 may be consistent across all nodes and users, so that eachnode and user can obtain the same input signal 2406 for laterverification of submitted data. In some embodiments where an audiosignal is used, the function 2405 may specify parameters such as pitch,rhythm, duration, and instrumentation for the selected signal 2406, andone or more of these parameters may vary based on the values containedin the block—has 2403. Similar parameters may be identified and variedfor visual signals (e.g., pattern, brightness, position), electricalsignals (e.g., waveform, frequency, amplitude), and other types ofinputs.

The signal 2406 may then be applied to a user's head or other portion ofthe user's body. In some embodiments, the signal 2406 may be an auditorysignal which may be transmitted through a speaker located near the earcanal. In some embodiments, the signal 2406 may be a video signal, whichmay be shown to a user on a display of the wireless device 2304 or theuser device 2301. In some embodiments, an audio, visual, and/oraudiovisual stimulus may be provided in a virtual reality environmentvia a virtual reality headset. In some embodiments, the signal 2406 maybe an electric, magnetoelectric, and/or vibration stimulatory signal,which may sent through an electrode and/or vibration motor located nearthe head. On the other side of the head, the signal may be received as amodified signal 2409, which may include an indication of both theoriginal signal 2406 and a biological characteristic of the user.Different mechanisms may be used where voice or facial data is insteadrecorded. For example, voice data may be recorded using a microphone,which may be located on the wireless device 2304 or user device 2301.Facial image data may be recorded through a camera, which may be locatedon the wireless device or user device 2301.

The modified signal 2409 may optionally be passed through a filteringcircuit 2410, 2411. In some embodiments, the filtering circuit 2410,2411 may include a low-pass filter 2410 and analog-to-digital converter2411. Other circuit elements may also be used. The filtering circuit maybe designed such that the modified signal 2409 is processed to complywith standardization requirements of an application for which theresulting signal will be used, thereby resulting in the generation of astandardized signal 2413. Such a signal is identifiable because it hasbeen generated from movement across a user's skin. It is human or“liveness” detectable because it is also generated as a function of themost recent block hash.

FIG. 25 illustrates an exemplary system 2500 for optionally anonymizingbiological data prior to communication over the network. In someembodiments, a biological data signal 2413 may be anonymized using anencryption key 2501. In some embodiments, the key 2501 may be ahomomorphic encryption key. In some embodiments, the key 2501 may bestored on or accessed by a user's wireless device, and the encryptiontechnique may be used before transmitting the data signal from thewireless device to a network node. In some embodiments, the encryptionkey may be stored on or accessed by a first network node (which mayoptionally be a privileged node 2307), and the encryption technique maybe used before the data is transmitted to one or more other nodes withinthe network. By using homomorphic encryption, data may be anonymized ina format that permits mathematical and/or analytical computations whileretaining anonymity and encryption.

FIGS. 26A and 26B depict exemplary systems 2600 a, 2600 b for providingvisual and/or auditory stimuli to a user. In an exemplary system 2600 a,a user 2301 may wear a stimulation/recording device 2302 and may view avisual stimulus presented in the wireless device 2304. In someembodiments, a camera 2607 may be positioned on the wireless device2304. In some embodiments, facial data such as eye-tracking data 2604and/or facial expression data 2606 may be used to make sure the user ispaying attention to the screen and/or is a live person. In someembodiments, the obtained data may be transmitted from the wirelessdevice to a node as discussed above. FIG. 26B depicts a relatedembodiment in which a user receives visual and/or auditory stimuli orother stimuli through a headset 2608. Here, the obtained data may betransmitted from the headset 2608 to a wireless device, or in otherembodiments, the headset 2608 may itself function as a wireless device.In some embodiments, the headset 2608 may process and transmit obtaineddata to a node. In other embodiments, the obtained data may be relayedto a wireless device, which may in turn relay the data to a node,optionally after processing and/or standardizing the data.

FIG. 27 illustrates an exemplary process 2700 for analyzing biologicaldata in a decentralized network. This exemplary process 2700 can be usedfor purposes such as identifying a person 2302 from whom the biologicaldata was received. In some embodiments, data 2701 (which may be, forexample, a biometric data signal such as those discussed above) may betransmitted among a plurality of nodes 2704, 2705 in a decentralizednetwork 2703. In some embodiments, multiple nodes within the pluralitymay perform an analysis task simultaneously. In some embodiments, thistask may include generating an identity estimate for the individual 2302from whom the data 2701 was received. In some embodiments, an incentivemay be awarded to the first node to successfully complete the analysistask, thereby creating a “race” among the nodes participating in theanalysis task. In the illustrated embodiment, an “initiator” node 2705successfully completes the task first, whereas other nodes 2704 are, forpurposes of this task, considered “losing” nodes.

To generate an identity estimate, each participating node may select acandidate user 2706 a-2706 e from an account database accessible by thatrespective node. This account database may include data for a largenumber of users, and following each successful identification process,the account data for that user may be updated to include the newlyvalidated biological data 2701 for that user. The candidate user 2706 amay be selected by the node randomly or according to a function definedby the network or within the respective node. In some embodiments, eachnode may define its own method for performing identity determinations.For example, some nodes may select candidate users 2706 a non-randomlybased on recognized patterns for certain users or groups of users. Byallowing nodes to define their own identification methods, nodes areincentivized to develop progressively more powerful algorithms, with aresulting improvement over time to the speed and accuracy of thenetwork.

In some embodiments, after selecting the candidate user 2706 a, the nodemay perform a comparison between the biological data 2701 and a set ofhistorical data 2708 associated with the candidate user. In someembodiments, this comparison may be performed using a machine learningalgorithm, optionally using a neural network architecture. For example,a recurrent neural network such as that described in “The UnreasonableEffectiveness of Recurrent Neural Networks” by Anrej Karapthy, which isincorporated by reference herein in its entirety, may be used as aframework for performing the types of comparisons described herein. Inan exemplary machine learning embodiment, a node may compare thebiological data 2701 against historical data 2708 for a candidate userand output a value between 0 and 1, with 0 representing perfectconfidence that the two sets of data are not obtained from the sameindividual, and 1 representing perfect confidence that the two sets ofdata are obtained from the same individual. By training the machinelearning algorithm on a large dataset with validated identifications, itis possible to obtain a high rate of prediction accuracy.

If a match is not found, the node may select a new candidate user 2706b, and repeat the above-described process using the same inputbiological data 2701. This process may continue within one or more nodessimultaneously until the initiator node 2705 determines a match betweenthe candidate user historical data 2708 and the biological data 2701.The initiator node 2705 may then transmit a message 2710 including anidentifier for the matching candidate user to one or more the othernodes. The losing nodes 2704 may then retrieve the historical data 2708for the matching candidate, and compare this historical data against theinput biological data 2701. If the losing nodes 2704 also verify thatthe data belongs to the candidate user 2706 a, then candidate user 2706a is confirmed as being the person 2302 from whom the biological data2701 was received.

Optionally, the winning node 2705 may receive a reward, such as units ofa cryptocurrency, for first correctly determining the identity of theperson 2302. Offering a reward for such an analysis task may incentivizea large number of nodes to participate in the task. In this manner, alarge amount of computing power may be cost-effectively allocated to theincentivized task. In the identification example discussed above, thismay allow a large amount of biological data to be accumulated andprocessed relatively quickly and inexpensively. This in turn may allowmore accurate identity determinations based on larger and, in somecases, continuously updated databases.

FIG. 28 illustrates an exemplary embodiment of a method 2900 for acomputer network wherein consensus over a biological data's propertiesis achieved by a voting process among a plurality of nodes 2306. In someembodiments, nodes may be assigned vote weightings 2904, 2907. Forexample, a first node may have a relatively high weighting 2904 while asecond node may have a lower weighting 2907. By allocating greaterweight to more trustworthy nodes and/or nodes with greater processingpower, it may be possible to improve both accuracy and processing speedof the network.

FIG. 28 also illustrates a test method 2906 for keeping the networkhonest by means of submitting past data for verification across saidnetwork. In some embodiments, an originating node 2917 may transmit tonodes within the network previously verified data 2908, which may bestored on a database 2909. The previously verified data 2908 may be“faked” as new data, meaning that the data may be transmitted in such away that a test node 2916 will treat the data 2908 as though it were newdata. The test node 2916 may then analyze the data according to itsusual process, and circulate its result to the other nodes 2903 on thesystem. When the result is received by the originating node 2917, theoriginating node may compare the result received from the test node 2916to the previously verified result to determine whether the test node2916 is trustworthy. If the result is the same as what had beenpreviously verified, a reputation score, which may be stored on a localhard drive of the originating node 2917 or may be shared across aplurality of nodes within the network, may be increased. If the resultdiffers from what had been previously verified, the reputation score maybe decreased. In some embodiments, lower-weighted voting nodes may usetest method 2906 to evaluate whether higher-weighted voting nodes may betrusted. In some embodiments, a node's vote weighting may be based inpart or in whole on that node's reputation score.

FIG. 29 illustrates an exemplary embodiment of a device circuit 3000. Insome embodiments, the circuit may be used for receiving data derivedfrom a blockchain, modulating that data based on a being's biologicalproperties and current network states, and/or returning the modulatedsignal back to the network as evidence of liveness or humanness. In someembodiments, a power source 3001 may provide power to the circuit. Awireless module 3002 may contain elements including an analog-to-digitalconverter, a digital-to-analog converter, a filter, and/or an amplifier.An analog-to-digital converter 3003 may receive audio, visual, oraudiovisual data from a microphone and/or camera 3010 and output theresulting digital data to a wireless module 3002. Similarly, skin data3012 (e.g., electrical data received from an electrode in contact withthe skin) may also pass through an analog-to-digital converter 3004 andmay optionally output the resulting data to filtering components such asa low-pass filter 3005 and/or a notch filter 3006. The wireless module3002 may transmit and receive data to a wireless device 2304 via awireless communication technology 3020 such as Bluetooth. The wirelessmodule may also send data (such as data received from the wirelessdevice 2304) through a digital-to-analog converter 3007, which may inturn feed data to a speaker 3018. Optionally, the data may be amplifiedby an amplifier 3008, filtered then amplified by a filtering andamplifying circuit 3009, or sent to a vibratory element 3010 (e.g., avibration motor). A stimulus derived from the data received from thewireless device 2304 may then be applied to the user, such as to theuser's skin 3014 or other suitable portion of the user's body (e.g., tothe user's ears where an audio stimulus is applied). The applied signalsmay also contain elements of magnetoelectricity through use of amagnetic element 3017. The circuit or a wireless device may also collectfacial data such as eye-tracking or facial expression data 3016. Thisdata may be captured using a camera connected to the circuit or using acamera on the wireless device 2304.

FIG. 30 illustrates an exemplary method 3100 for sending informationfrom a blockchain to a user and back to the blockchain. As explainedabove, such a method may be used for decentralized liveness or humandetection. In step 3101, a recent block's hash may be determined. Theblock's hash may be an effectively random number from a very largepotential space. In some embodiments, this random number could bemanipulated by a node that submits the block. In some embodiments,however, nodes have an incentive to propagate a random hash as acompeting node is more likely to submit a correct block hash in the timeit takes to manipulate this random value. In some embodiments, eachblock includes a timestamp.

In step 3102, the hash may be converted to a stimulus (which may be,e.g., audio, visual, vibratory, electromagnetic, or some other input)that may be applied to a user. In step 3103, the user's biologicalresponse to the stimulus is recorded. This response and recorded signalmay be a function of the block's hash and/or input signal, meaning thatthe response cannot have been generated any earlier than the timestampof the block upon which the input signal is based. The recorded signalmay also be a function of biological properties of the user. In thismanner, the recorded signal may be both identifiable and the time of itsorigination may be constrained within a known period of time, whichcould be less than a second in some embodiments. This provides a highdegree of reliability as an attacker would have had to simulate thesignal in the amount of time between said block hash and the moment therecorded signal was submitted, which may be as little as less than asecond. In optional step 3104, the recorded signal may be filtered toprovide information on other valuable features. In the case ofbrainwaves, this may be a subconscious response to an advertisement orother media.

In step 3105, the recorded signal (or data derived therefrom) may betransmitted to a network node. The initial receipt of the recorded maybe timestamped. In some embodiments, the timestamp of receipt may becompared to the timestamp of the blockhash. In this manner, the amountof time between origination of the blockhash and origination of therecorded signal may be determined. This may offer an additional securitycheck, as unusually long delays or timestamps prior to generation of thehash with which they are associated may indicate fraudulent data. Instep 3106, the signal may be transmitted to a plurality of nodes withina decentralized network. The nodes may then analyze the signal and reacha consensus on the identity of the user using any of the processesdiscussed above.

FIG. 31 illustrates an exemplary method 3200 for submitting andprocessing biological data. In step 3201, a user may submit biologicaldata. In embodiments where the user submits a large quantity ofbiological data, optionally over a prolonged period of time, the datamay be used to establish and verify the user's account in a rewardsystem. The account may have additional security checks, such asverified online accounts and phone number. In some embodiments, thebiological data alone or in combination with the other checks may ensurethat the user does not have more than one account. In step 3202, one ormore nodes in a network may record the received biological data inassociation with the user's account. The nodes may begin to train theiralgorithms on this data as well as data received from other users. Inoptional step 3203, a user who temporarily or permanently lacks accessto alternative methods of verification (e.g., encryption keys associatedwith a previously used wireless device), the user may submit biologicaldata to the network in order to prove that they are truly the owner oftheir account. Upon verifying the user's identity using the biologicaldata, the network may optionally associate new alternative verificationinformation (such as an encryption key on a new wireless device) withthe user's account.

In step 3204, a given node may analyze the biological data to determinean identity of the user. In some embodiments, step 3204 may be performedin accordance with the process described with respect to FIG. 27. Instep 3205, an initiator node finds a match with high verificationprobability, and transmits the match to other nodes in the network. Instep 3206, other nodes in the network confirm the submitted match.Optionally, the initiator node may be rewarded. In step 3207, a node mayreceive a suggested match from another node within the network andattempt to verify the suggested match. If the match is confirmed, thenode may continue to step 3208, and may vote to reward the initiatornode from which the suggested match is received. If the match is notconfirmed, the method may continue to step 3209, in which the node mayvote that the suggested match is invalid. Optionally, the node may alsovote to punish the initiator node for submitting a false match. In theevent that consensus is reached that the suggested match is invalid, themethod may return to step 3204, in which one or more nodes continueiterating through a database of candidate users to identify the userfrom whom the biological data was received.

FIG. 32 illustrates an exemplary computing device 3310. The computingdevice may include a memory 3320, which may store instructionsconfigured to be executed by a processor 3330. In some embodiments, thecomputing device 3310 may be configured to use remote processors and/orto access remotely stored data, such as by using cloud computing and/orcloud storage. The user devices, wireless devices, and nodes describedherein may optionally incorporate some or all of the features of thisexemplary computing device.

EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Embodiment 1

A system for applying and/or receiving an electrical signal, the systemcomprising:

-   a body;-   a conductor configured to be electrically coupled to at least one of    a power source and a detector;-   a first filament, the first filament comprising a base portion and a    first tip end, the base portion being electrically coupled to the    conductor, the first filament being electrically conductive such    that the first filament is configured to carry an electrical signal    between the base portion and the first tip end;-   wherein at least a portion of the first filament is arranged to    contact a biological tissue portion.

Embodiment 2

The system of embodiment 1, wherein the first tip end of the firstfilament extends outwardly relative to the body such that the first tipend is arranged to contact the biological tissue portion.

Embodiment 3

The system of any of embodiments 1 and 2, wherein the first tip end hasa width of less than 50 microns.

Embodiment 4

The system of any of embodiments 1-3, wherein the first filament furthercomprises a second tip end, the second tip end extending outwardlyrelative to the body such that the second tip end is arranged to contacta biological tissue portion; wherein the base portion electricallycontacts the conductor at a position on the filament between the firsttip end and the second tip end.

Embodiment 5

The system of any of embodiments 1-4, wherein the body encloses at leasta portion of the conductor, the body further comprising a first surface,wherein first filament extends outwardly relative to the first surfacesuch that the first surface is configured to abut the biological tissueportion when the first filament contacts the biological tissue portion.

Embodiment 6

The system of embodiment 5, further comprising an anchor, the firstfilament being coupled to the anchor.

Embodiment 7

The system of embodiment 6, wherein the body comprises a cavity shapedto receive the anchor;

-   wherein the body, anchor, and filament are arranged such that when    the anchor is disposed within the cavity, the first tip end of the    filament extends outwardly relative to the body such that the first    tip end is arranged to contact the biological tissue portion.

Embodiment 8

The system of embodiment 7, wherein one of the cavity and the anchorcomprises a projection and the other of the cavity and the anchorcomprises a complementary recess, wherein the anchor is configured to besnap-fit into the cavity such that the projection is retained within therecess.

Embodiment 9

The system of any of embodiments 7 and 8, further comprising a secondanchor and a second filament being coupled to the second anchor;

-   wherein the body comprises a second cavity shaped to receive the    second anchor, the body, second anchor, and second filament being    arranged such that when the second anchor is disposed within the    second cavity, a tip end of the second filament extends outwardly    relative to the body such that the tip end of the second filament is    arranged to contact the biological tissue portion.

Embodiment 10

The system of any of embodiments 1-9, wherein the body comprises asubstantially arcuate portion configured to fit around a portion of auser's ear.

Embodiment 11

The system of any of embodiments 1-10, wherein the body has adeformation characteristic such that when a proximal end of the body isfixed and a torque is applied to a distal end of the body such that thebody exhibits 30 degrees of flexion relative to an original state, thebody retains at least 10 degrees of deformation after the torque isremoved.

Embodiment 12

The system of any of embodiments 1-11, wherein the body has aflexibility characteristic such that a torque less than or equal to 1.3Newton-meters applied to a distal end of the body when a proximal end ofthe body is fixed produces at least 30 degrees of flexion.

Embodiment 13

The system of any of embodiments 1-12, further comprising a plurality offilaments, the first filament being among the plurality of filaments,each filament of the plurality of filaments comprising a tip endarranged to contact the biological tissue portion.

Embodiment 14

The system of embodiment 13, wherein each tip end extends outwardlyrelative to the body in substantially the same direction such that eachtip end may contact a substantially flat tissue portion without changingan orientation of the body.

Embodiment 15

The system of any of embodiments 1-14, further comprising a magneticelement, the magnetic element being selected from a group consisting of:a magnet, a toroid, a conductive coil, a magnetic powder, vibratorymagnetic element, and a magnetic fluid.

Embodiment 16

The system of embodiment 15, wherein the magnetic element is disposedwithin the anchor.

Embodiment 17

The system of embodiment 16, wherein the magnetic element is disposedwithin the body.

Embodiment 18

The system of any of embodiments 1-17, wherein the body comprises anouter surface that approximates a portion of a sphere or cone, the outersurface being sized to fit within a user's ear.

Embodiment 19

The system of embodiment 18, further comprising a speaker, the bodycomprising a hollow interior that intersects the outer surface, thespeaker being arranged to transmit sound waves through the hollowinterior.

Embodiment 20

A method of applying and/or receiving an electrical signal via abiological tissue portion, the method comprising:

-   positioning a system proximate a biological tissue portion, wherein    the system comprises:-   a body;-   a conductor configured to be electrically coupled to at least one of    a power source and a detector;-   a first filament, the first filament comprising a base portion and a    first tip end, the base portion being electrically coupled to the    conductor, the first filament being electrically conductive such    that the first filament is configured to carry an electrical signal    between the base portion and the first tip end;-   advancing the first filament toward the biological tissue portion    such that the first tip end contacts the biological tissue portion;-   using the first filament to apply and/or receive an electrical    signal via the biological tissue portion.

Embodiment 21

The method of embodiment 20, wherein the biological tissue portion isskin and the step of advancing the first filament toward the biologicaltissue portion comprises disposing at least a portion of the first tipend within a pore of said skin.

Embodiment 22

The method of embodiment 21, wherein the first tip end has a width lessthan or equal to 50 microns, and the pore has a width less than or equalto 50 microns.

Embodiment 23

The method of any of embodiments 20-22, wherein the first tip end of thefirst filament extends outwardly relative to the body such that thefirst tip end is arranged to contact the biological tissue portion.

Embodiment 24

The method of any of embodiments 20-23, wherein the body encloses atleast a portion of the conductor, the body further comprising a firstsurface, wherein first filament extends outwardly relative to the firstsurface such that the first surface is configured to abut the biologicaltissue portion when the first filament contacts the biological tissueportion.

Embodiment 25

The method of any of embodiments 20-24, further comprising: disposing asubstantially arcuate portion of the body around a portion of a user'sear such that the biological tissue portion with which the first tip endis in contact is a portion of skin behind the user's ear.

Embodiment 26

The method of any of embodiments 20-25, wherein the body has adeformation characteristic such that when a proximal end of the body isfixed and a torque is applied to a distal end of the body such that abody of the body exhibits 30 degrees of flexion relative to an originalstate, the body retains at least 10 degrees of deformation after thetorque is removed.

Embodiment 27

The method of any of embodiments 20-26, wherein the body has aflexibility characteristic such that a torque less than or equal to 2.5Newton-meters produces at least 30 degrees of flexion when a proximalend of the body is fixed and said torque is applied to a distal end ofthe body.

Embodiment 28

The method of any of embodiments 20-27, further comprising applying aforce to the body such that the body plastically deforms to adapt to ashape of the biological tissue portion.

Embodiment 29

The method of embodiment 28, wherein the body comprises a firstconfiguration that is substantially straight and a second configurationthat is substantially bent, and applying the force results in the bodytransitioning from the first configuration to the second configuration.

Embodiment 30

The method of any of embodiments 28 and 29, wherein applying the forcecomprises at least partially wrapping the body around a portion of theuser's body.

Embodiment 31

The method of embodiment 30, wherein the portion of the user's body isselected from a group consisting of: an ear, an arm, a hand, a finger, aleg, a foot, a toe, a head, a neck, a back, a pelvic floor, and a penis.

Embodiment 32

The method of any of embodiments 20-31, wherein the system comprises aplurality of filaments, the plurality of filaments comprising the firstfilament and a second filament, the second filament comprising a secondbase portion and a second tip end, the second base portion beingelectrically coupled to the conductor, the second filament beingelectrically conductive such that the second filament is configured tocarry an electrical signal between the second base portion and thesecond tip end;

-   wherein the step of advancing the first filament toward the    biological tissue portion results in the second tip end being placed    in contact with the biological tissue portion.

Embodiment 33

The method of embodiment 32, wherein the biological tissue portion isskin and the step of advancing the first filament toward the biologicaltissue portion results in:

-   at least a portion of the first tip end being disposed within a    first pore of said skin; and-   at least a portion of the second tip end being disposed within a    second pore of said skin.

Embodiment 34

The method of any of embodiments 32 and 33, wherein the biologicaltissue portion contacted by the plurality of filaments is substantiallyflat, and each filament of the plurality of filaments extends insubstantially the same direction, the method further comprising:

-   placing each tip end of the plurality of filaments in contact with    the portion of the biological tissue portion without changing an    orientation of the body.

Embodiment 35

The method of any of embodiments 20-34, wherein the system furthercomprises an anchor, the first filament being coupled to the anchor;

-   wherein the body comprises a cavity shaped to receive the anchor;-   further wherein the body, anchor, and filament are arranged such    that when the anchor is disposed within the cavity, the first tip    end of the filament extends outwardly relative to the body such that    the first tip end is arranged to contact the biological tissue    portion.

Embodiment 36

The method of embodiment 35, wherein one of the cavity and the anchorcomprises a projection and the other of the cavity and the anchorcomprises a complementary recess, wherein the anchor is configured to besnap-fit into the cavity such that the projection is retained within therecess.

Embodiment 37

The method of any of embodiments 20-36, wherein the system furthercomprises a first magnetic element, the first magnetic element beingselected from a group consisting of: a magnet, a toroid, a conductivecoil, a magnetic powder, and a magnetic fluid;

-   wherein the method further comprises placing the first magnetic    element proximate the biological tissue portion such that an energy    field applied by the first filament is distributed in a different    pattern than said energy field would have been distributed if the    first magnetic element were not present.

Embodiment 38

The method of embodiment 37, wherein the first magnetic element isdisposed within the anchor.

Embodiment 39

The method of embodiment 37, wherein the first magnetic element isdisposed within the body.

Embodiment 40

The method of embodiment 37, further comprising:

-   positioning a second system proximate a second biological tissue    portion, wherein the second system comprises a conductor, a    filament, and a second magnetic element, the second magnetic element    being selected from a group consisting of: a magnet, a toroid, a    conductive coil, a magnetic powder, and a magnetic fluid;-   advancing the second system toward the second biological tissue    portion such that the filament of the second system contacts the    second biological tissue portion;-   placing the second magnetic element proximate the second biological    tissue portion such that an energy field applied by the second    system is distributed in a different pattern than said energy field    applied by the second system would have been distributed if the    second magnetic element were not present.

Embodiment 41

The method of embodiment 40, wherein the first magnetic element has afirst pair of north-south magnetic poles, and the second magneticelement has a second pair of north-south magnetic poles, and placing thefirst and second magnetic elements proximate the respective biologicaltissue portions results in a configuration wherein like poles of therespective magnetic elements are directed substantially toward oneanother.

Embodiment 42

The method of embodiment 40, wherein the first magnetic element has afirst pair of north-south magnetic poles, and the second magneticelement has a second pair of north-south magnetic poles, and placing thefirst and second magnetic elements proximate the respective biologicaltissue portions results in a configuration wherein opposite poles of therespective magnetic elements are directed substantially toward oneanother.

Embodiment 43

The method of embodiment 40, wherein the first system comprises a firstplurality of magnetic elements aligned in alternating polarities along asurface of the body, and the second system comprises a second pluralityof magnetic elements in alternating polarities opposite to those of thefirst plurality of magnetic elements, the biological tissue portionbeing disposed between the first system and the second system.

Embodiment 44

The method of embodiment 40, wherein the first system comprises a firstplurality of magnetic elements aligned in alternating polarities along asurface of the body, and the second system comprises a second pluralityof magnetic elements in alternating polarities identical to those of thefirst plurality of magnetic elements, the biological tissue portionbeing disposed between the first system and the second system.

Embodiment 45

The method of any of embodiments 40-44, wherein one or more magneticelements may be a mechanically vibrating element.

Embodiment 46

The method of any of embodiments 20-45, further comprising placing atleast a portion of the system within a user's ear.

Embodiment 47

The method of embodiment 46, wherein the system comprises a speaker, themethod further comprising using the speaker to transmit sound waves tothe user's ear.

Embodiment 48

A system for applying and/or receiving an electrical signal, the systemcomprising:

-   a conductive tip, the tip comprising a channel and an outer surface    having a shape that approximates a portion of a sphere or cone, the    tip being sized to fit within a user's ear;-   a base configured to be coupled to the tip, the base comprising a    conductor in electrical contact with the tip such that an electrical    signal may pass between the base and the tip.

Embodiment 49

The system of embodiment 48, wherein the base comprises a maleconnector, and the tip comprises a female connector, and the tip andbase are configured to engage one-another via the male and femaleconnectors.

Embodiment 50

The system of embodiment 49, wherein the base comprises an electricalcontact portion, the electrical contact portion being positioned suchthat when the tip and base engage one-another, a portion of the tip isresiliently biased against the electrical contact portion.

Embodiment 51

The system of any of embodiments 48-50, wherein the base furthercomprises a speaker, the speaker being arranged to transmit sound wavesthrough the channel when the tip is coupled to the base.

Embodiment 52

The system of any of embodiments 48-51, wherein the tip comprises aplurality of conductive filaments, the plurality of conductive filamentscomprising a first filament extending radially outwardly from the outersurface and being arranged to directly contact a portion of the user'sskin when the tip is positioned within the user's ear.

Embodiment 53

The system of any of embodiments 48-52, wherein the base comprises amagnetic element, the magnetic element being selected from a groupconsisting of: a magnet, a toroid, a conductive coil, a magnetic powder,and a magnetic fluid;

-   wherein the magnetic element is configured to alter an energy field    applied by the tip when an electrical is applied to the tip relative    to an energy field that would have resulted had the magnetic element    not been present.

Embodiment 54

The system of any of embodiments 48-53, wherein the tip consistsessentially of a conductive material having a modulus of elasticity lessthan 4.5 GPa.

Embodiment 55

A method for applying and/or receiving an electrical signal, the methodcomprising:

-   placing a conductive tip within a user's ear such that the tip    contacts a portion of the user's skin within the ear, wherein the    tip comprises a channel and is coupled to a base, the base    comprising a conductor in electrical contact with the tip such that    an electrical signal may pass between the base and the tip;-   applying and/or receiving an electrical signal via the portion of    the user's skin.

Embodiment 56

The method of embodiment 55, wherein the base comprises a maleconnector, and the tip comprises a female connector, the method furthercomprising connecting the male connector to the female connector.

Embodiment 57

The method of embodiment 56, wherein connecting the male connector tothe female connector results in a portion of the tip being resilientlybiased against an electrical contact portion disposed on the base.

Embodiment 58

The method of any of embodiments 55-57, wherein the base furthercomprises a speaker, the method further comprising using the speaker totransmit sound waves through the channel.

Embodiment 59

The method of any of embodiments 55-58, wherein the tip comprises aplurality of conductive filaments, the plurality of conductive filamentscomprising a first filament extending radially outwardly from an outersurface of the tip, wherein placing the tip within the user's earresults in the first filament directly contacting the portion of theuser's skin.

Embodiment 60

The method of any of embodiments 55-59, wherein the base comprises amagnetic element, the magnetic element being selected from a groupconsisting of: a magnet, a toroid, a conductive coil, a magnetic powder,and a magnetic fluid;

-   wherein the method further comprises placing the magnetic element    proximate the user's ear such that an energy field applied by the    tip is distributed in a different pattern than said energy field    would have been distributed if the magnetic element were not    present.

Embodiment 61

The method of any of embodiments 55-60, wherein the tip consistsessentially of a conductive material having a modulus of elasticity lessthan 3.5 GPa.

Embodiment 62

A method for applying and/or receiving an electrical signal, the methodcomprising:

-   placing a system comprising a body and an electrode in contact with    a biological tissue portion, wherein the body has:-   a deformation characteristic such that when a proximal end of the    body is fixed and a first torque is applied to a distal end of the    body such that the body exhibits 30 degrees of flexion relative to    an original state, the body retains at least 10 degrees of    deformation after the first torque is removed-   a flexibility characteristic such that a second torque less than or    equal to 2.5 Newton-meters produces at least 30 degrees of flexion    when the second torque is applied to a distal end of the body while    a proximal end of the body is fixed;-   applying a force to the body such that the body plastically deforms    to adapt to a shape of the biological tissue portion;-   using the electrode to apply and/or receive an electrical signal via    the biological tissue portion.

Embodiment 63

The method of embodiment 62, wherein the body comprises a firstconfiguration that is substantially straight and a second configurationthat is substantially bent, and applying the force results in the bodytransitioning from the first configuration to the second configuration.

Embodiment 64

The method of any of embodiments 62 and 63, wherein applying the forcecomprises at least partially wrapping the body around a portion of auser's body.

Embodiment 65

The method of any of embodiments 64, wherein the portion of the user'sbody is selected from a group consisting of: an ear, an arm, a hand, afinger, a leg, a foot, a toe, a head, a neck, and a penis.

Embodiment 66

The method of any of embodiments 62-65, wherein the electrode comprisesa plurality of conductive filaments, the plurality of conductivefilaments comprising a first filament extending radially outwardly froman outer surface of the body,

-   wherein placing the system in contact with the biological tissue    portion results in the first filament directly contacting the    biological tissue portion.

Embodiment 67

The method of any of embodiments 62-66, wherein the system comprises amagnetic element, the magnetic element being selected from a groupconsisting of: a magnet, a toroid, a conductive coil, a magnetic powder,and a magnetic fluid;

-   wherein the method further comprises placing the magnetic element    proximate the biological tissue portion such that an energy field    applied by the electrode is distributed in a different pattern than    said energy field would have been distributed if the magnetic    element were not present.

Embodiment 68

The method of any of embodiments 62-65 and 67, wherein the electrode isa surface of the body.

Embodiment 69

The method of any of embodiments 62-68, wherein the body is disposed inone or more coils around a user's thigh, and the electrode is arrangedalong the user's pelvic floor and a second is electrode arranged aroundskin near the user's distal hip.

Embodiment 70

The method of any of embodiments 62-68, wherein the body is disposedaround a penis, and the biological tissue portion is on the penis.

Embodiment 71

The method of any of embodiments 62-68, wherein the body is disposed ina ring around a bicep, and the biological tissue portion is on ashoulder and/or a proximal portion of bicep region, wherein a secondelectrode is placed in contact with a distal portion of the bicep.

Embodiment 72

The method of any of embodiments 62-68, wherein the body is disposedaround a knee.

Embodiment 73

The method of any of embodiments 62-68, wherein the electrode isarranged along a path of a vagus nerve.

Embodiment 74

The method of any of embodiments 62-68, wherein the body may be arrangedproximal to an ankle, wherein the electrode is disposed near a locationwith visceral or nervous entities.

Embodiment 75

The method of any of embodiments 62-74, wherein the body is intertwinedwith itself.

Embodiment 76

The method of any of embodiments 62-75, wherein the body is coiledmultiple times.

Embodiment 77

The method of any of embodiments 62-76, wherein the body is intertwinedwith itself after it has been coiled.

Embodiment 78

The method of embodiment any of embodiments 62-68, wherein the body isdisposed around the lower spine substantially between T-8 and S-3.

Embodiment 79

The method of embodiment any of embodiments 62-68, wherein the body isdisposed around the lower spine substantially between T-1 and L-2.

Embodiment 80

The method of embodiment any of embodiments 62-68, in which the body isdisposed around T11.

Embodiment 81

A system for applying and/or receiving an electrical signal, the systemcomprising:

-   a body;-   a conductor configured to be electrically coupled to at least one of    a power source and a detector;-   an electrode, the electrode comprising a surface configured to    contact a biological tissue portion and apply and/or receive an    electrical signal to and/or from the biological tissue portion; and-   a magnetic element, the magnetic element being selected from a group    consisting of: a magnet, a toroid, a conductive coil, a magnetic    powder, and a magnetic fluid.

Embodiment 82

The system of embodiment 81, wherein the body encloses at least aportion of the conductor, the electrode being supported on a portion ofthe body.

Embodiment 83

The system of any of embodiments 81 and 82, further comprising ananchor, the electrode being coupled to the anchor;

-   wherein the body comprises a cavity shaped to receive the anchor;-   wherein the body, anchor, and electrode are arranged such that when    the anchor is disposed within the cavity, the electrode is arranged    to contact the biological tissue portion.

Embodiment 84

The system of embodiment 83, wherein one of the cavity and the anchorcomprises a projection and the other of the cavity and the anchorcomprises a complementary recess, wherein the anchor is configured to besnap-fit into the cavity such that the projection is retained within therecess.

Embodiment 85

The system of any of embodiments 83 and 84, wherein the magnetic elementis disposed within the anchor.

Embodiment 86

The system of any of embodiments 83 and 84, wherein the magnetic elementis disposed within the body proximate the cavity.

Embodiment 87

A method of applying and/or receiving an electrical signal via abiological tissue portion, the method comprising:

-   positioning a first system proximate a biological tissue portion,    wherein the system comprises:-   a first body;-   a first conductor configured to be electrically coupled to at least    one of a power source and a detector;-   a first electrode, the first electrode comprising a surface    configured to contact a first biological tissue portion and apply    and/or receive an electrical signal to and/or from the first    biological tissue portion; and-   a first magnetic element, the first magnetic element being selected    from a group consisting of: a magnet, a toroid, a conductive coil, a    magnetic powder, and a magnetic fluid.-   placing the first magnetic element proximate the first biological    tissue portion;-   using the first electrode to apply and/or receive an electrical    signal via the first biological tissue portion, wherein a first    energy field applied by the first electrode is distributed in a    different pattern than said first energy field would have been    distributed if the first magnetic element were not present.

Embodiment 88

The method of embodiment 87, further comprising:

-   positioning a second system proximate a second biological tissue    portion, wherein the second system comprises a second body, a second    conductor, a second electrode, and a second magnetic element, the    second magnetic element being selected from a group consisting of: a    magnet, a toroid, a conductive coil, a magnetic powder, and a    magnetic fluid;-   placing the second magnetic element proximate the second biological    tissue portion;-   using the second electrode to apply and/or receive an electrical    signal via the second biological tissue portion, wherein a second    energy field applied by the second electrode is distributed in a    different pattern than said second energy field would have been    distributed if the second magnetic element were not present.

Embodiment 89

The method of embodiment 88, wherein the first magnetic element has afirst pair of north-south magnetic poles, and the second magneticelement has a second pair of north-south magnetic poles, and placing thefirst and second magnetic elements proximate the respective biologicaltissue portions results in a configuration wherein like poles of therespective magnetic elements are directed substantially toward oneanother.

Embodiment 90

The method of embodiment 88, wherein the first magnetic element has afirst pair of north-south magnetic poles, and the second magneticelement has a second pair of north-south magnetic poles, and placing thefirst and second magnetic elements proximate the respective biologicaltissue portions results in a configuration wherein opposite poles of therespective magnetic elements are directed substantially toward oneanother.

Embodiment 91

The method of any of embodiments 87-90, wherein the first electrodecomprises a plurality of filaments.

Embodiment 92

The method of any of embodiments 87-91, further comprising a firstanchor, the electrode being coupled to the first anchor;

-   wherein the first body comprises a first cavity shaped to receive    the first anchor;-   wherein the first body, first anchor, and first electrode are    arranged such that when the first anchor is disposed within the    first cavity, the first electrode is arranged to contact the    biological tissue portion.

Embodiment 93

The method of embodiment 92, wherein one of the first cavity and thefirst anchor comprises a projection and the other of the first cavityand the first anchor comprises a complementary recess, wherein the firstanchor is configured to be snap-fit into the first cavity such that theprojection is retained within the recess.

Embodiment 94

The method of any of embodiments 92 and 93, wherein the first magneticelement is disposed within the first anchor.

Embodiment 95

The method of any of embodiments 92 and 93, wherein the first magneticelement is disposed within the first body proximate the first cavity.

Embodiment 96

A method for obtaining biological data, the method being performed by alocal user system comprising a user device that is associated with auser, the method comprising:

-   receiving a first message comprising an indication of a stimulus to    be applied to the user;-   in response to receiving the first message, applying the stimulus to    the user, the stimulus being applied based on the indication in the    first message;-   detecting a biological response to the stimulus;-   generating first data comprising an indication of the detected    biological response; and transmitting a second message comprising    the first data.

Embodiment 97

The method of embodiment 96, wherein the user device comprises a firstelectrode, and the step of detecting a biological response to thestimulus comprises using the first electrode to record the user'sbrainwaves.

Embodiment 98

The method of embodiment 97, wherein the user device further comprises asecond electrode, and the step of applying the stimulus to the usercomprises applying an electrical signal to a portion of the user's head.

Embodiment 99

The method of any of embodiments 96-98, wherein the indication of thestimulus to be applied to the user is based on an at least partiallyrandomly generated number having a publicly verifiable timestamp.

Embodiment 100

The method of any of embodiments 96-99, wherein the first message isreceived by the user device from a wireless device associated with theuser, and the second message is transmitted to the wireless device.

Embodiment 101

The method of any of embodiments 96-99, wherein the first message isreceived from a network node, and the second message is transmitted tothe network node.

Embodiment 102

The method of any of embodiments 96-101, wherein the local user systemdetermines the stimulus to be applied to the user by inputting theindication into a function, wherein the function generates a singleoutput for any given indication within a range of possible values.

Embodiment 103

The method of any of embodiments 96-99, 101, and 102, wherein the localuser system further comprises a wireless device, and the step ofapplying the stimulus to the user is performed by the wireless device.

Embodiment 104

The method of embodiment 103, wherein the step of detecting a biologicalresponse comprises using a microphone and/or a camera located on thewireless device to record voice and/or facial data.

Embodiment 105

The method of any of embodiments 96-102, wherein the user devicecomprises a speaker and the step of applying the stimulus to the usercomprises using the speaker to apply an audio stimulus.

Embodiment 106

A system for obtaining biological data, the system comprising:

-   a memory;-   and a processor configured to execute instructions stored on the    memory, wherein the system is configured to:-   receive a first message comprising an indication of a stimulus to be    applied to the user;-   in response to receiving the first message, apply the stimulus to    the user, the stimulus being applied based on the indication in the    first message;-   detect a biological response to the stimulus;-   generate first data comprising an indication of the detected    biological response; and-   transmit a second message comprising the first data.

Embodiment 107

The system of embodiment 106, wherein the system comprises a firstelectrode, and the system is configured to detect a biological responseto the stimulus by using the first electrode to record the user'sbrainwaves.

Embodiment 108

The system of embodiment 107, wherein the system further comprises asecond electrode, and the system is configured to apply the stimulus tothe user by applying an electrical signal to a portion of the user'shead.

Embodiment 109

The system of any of embodiments 106-108, wherein the indication of thestimulus to be applied to the user is based on an at least partiallyrandomly generated number having a publicly verifiable timestamp.

Embodiment 110

The system of any of embodiments 106-109, wherein the first message isreceived by the user device from a wireless device associated with theuser, and the second message is transmitted to the wireless device.

Embodiment 111

The system of any of embodiments 106-109, wherein the first message isreceived from a network node, and the second message is transmitted tothe network node.

Embodiment 112

The system of any of embodiments 106-111, wherein the system is furtherconfigured to determine the stimulus to be applied to the user byinputting the indication into a function, wherein the function generatesa single output for any given indication within a range of possiblevalues.

Embodiment 113

The system of any of embodiments 106-109, 111, and 112, wherein thesystem comprises a wireless device, and the step of applying thestimulus to the user is performed by the wireless device.

Embodiment 114

The system of embodiment 113, wherein the system is configured to detecta biological response using a microphone and/or a camera located on thewireless device to record voice and/or facial data.

Embodiment 115

The system of any of embodiments 106-107, wherein the user devicecomprises a speaker and the step of applying the stimulus to the usercomprises using the speaker to apply an audio stimulus.

Embodiment 116

A method for analyzing biological data, the method being performed by afirst node in a network, the method comprising:

-   receiving a first message comprising first data comprising    indication of a user's biological response to an applied stimulus;-   selecting a candidate user from among a plurality of candidate users    for whom biological data is stored in a database accessible by the    first node;-   retrieving from the database second data associated with the    candidate user;-   comparing the first data to the second data;-   determining, based on the comparison of the first data to the second    data, that the user is likely the candidate user;-   transmitting a second message to a second node within the network,    the second message comprising an indication that the user is likely    the candidate user.

Embodiment 117

The method of embodiment 116, further comprising:

-   receiving a third message comprising third data comprising an    indication that a second user is likely a second candidate user;-   retrieving from the database fourth data associated with the second    candidate user; comparing the third data to the fourth data;-   determining, based on the third data and the fourth data, that the    second user is likely the second candidate user;-   transmitting a fourth message comprising an indication that the    second user is likely the second candidate user.

Embodiment 118

The method of any of embodiments 116 and 117, wherein the database isupdated to include the first data and an indication that the first datais associated with the user.

Embodiment 119

The method of any of embodiments 116-118, wherein the first datacomprises brainwave data.

Embodiment 120

The method of any of embodiments 116-119, wherein the stimulus is basedon an at least partially randomly generated number having a publiclyverifiable timestamp.

Embodiment 121

A first node for analyzing biological data, the first node comprising:

-   a memory;-   and a processor configured to execute instructions stored on the    memory, wherein the first node is configured to:-   receive a first message comprising first data comprising indication    of a user's biological response to an applied stimulus;-   select a candidate user from among a plurality of candidate users    for whom biological data is stored in a database accessible by the    first node;-   retrieve from the database second data associated with the candidate    user; compare the first data to the second data;-   determine, based on the comparison of the first data to the second    data, that the user is likely the candidate user;-   transmit a second message to a second node within a network, the    second message comprising an indication that the user is likely the    candidate user.

Embodiment 122

The first node of embodiment 121, wherein the first node is furtherconfigured to:

-   receive a third message comprising third data comprising an    indication that a second user is likely a second candidate user;-   retrieve from the database fourth data associated with the second    candidate user; compare the third data to the fourth data;-   determine, based on the third data and the fourth data, that the    second user is likely the second candidate user;-   transmit a fourth message comprising an indication that the second    user is likely the second candidate user.

Embodiment 123

The first node of any of embodiments 121 and 122, wherein the databaseis updated to include the first data and an indication that the firstdata is associated with the user.

Embodiment 124

The first node of any of embodiments 121-123, wherein the first datacomprises brainwave data.

Embodiment 125

The first node of any of embodiments 121-124, wherein the stimulus isbased on an at least partially randomly generated number having apublicly verifiable timestamp.

While the subject matter of this disclosure has been described and shownin considerable detail with reference to certain illustrativeembodiments, including various combinations and sub-combinations offeatures, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate otherembodiments and variations and modifications thereof as encompassedwithin the scope of the present disclosure. Moreover, the descriptionsof such embodiments, combinations, and sub-combinations is not intendedto convey that the claimed subject matter requires features orcombinations of features other than those expressly recited in theclaims. Accordingly, the scope of this disclosure is intended to includeall modifications and variations encompassed within the spirit and scopeof the following appended claims.

The invention claimed is:
 1. A method of applying and/or receiving anelectrical signal via a biological tissue portion, the methodcomprising: positioning a first system against a first skin portion on auser's head, wherein the first system comprises: a first body; a firstconductor configured to be electrically coupled to at least one of apower source and a detector; a first electrode, the first electrodecomprising a surface configured to contact the first skin portion andapply and/or receive an electrical signal to and/or from the first skinportion; and a first magnetic element, the first magnetic element beingselected from the group consisting of: a magnet, a toroid, a conductivecoil, a magnetic powder, and a magnetic fluid; positioning a secondsystem against a second skin portion on the user's head, wherein thesecond system comprises: a second body; a second electrode, the secondelectrode comprising a surface configured to contact the second skinportion and apply and/or receive an electrical signal to and/or from thesecond skin portion; and a second magnetic element, the first magneticelement being selected from the group consisting of: a magnet, a toroid,a conductive coil, a magnetic powder, and a magnetic fluid; applying orreceiving, using the first electrode, a first electrical signal via thefirst skin portion, wherein a first energy field applied or received bythe first electrode is distributed in a different pattern than saidfirst energy field would have been distributed if the first magneticelement were not present; and applying or receiving, using the secondelectrode, a second electrical signal via the second skin portion,wherein the second energy field applied or received by the secondelectrode is distributed in a different pattern than said second energyfield would have been distributed if the second magnetic element werenot present wherein the first signal is applied by the first electrodeand the second signal is received by the second electrode, the methodfurther comprising: generating data based on the second signal, whereinthe second signal is related to the first signal such that the datagenerated based on the second signal is configured to be analyzed toassess whether the second signal was received after the first signal wasapplied.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the first magnetic elementhas a first pair of north-south magnetic poles, and the second magneticelement has a second pair of north-south magnetic poles, and the stepsof positioning the first system against the first skin portion andpositioning the second system against the second skin portion togetherresult in a configuration wherein like poles of the respective magneticelements are directed substantially toward one another.
 3. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the first magnetic element has a first pair ofnorth-south magnetic poles, and the second magnetic element has a secondpair of north-south magnetic poles, and the steps of positioning thefirst system against the first skin portion and positioning the secondsystem against the second skin portion together result in aconfiguration wherein opposite poles of the respective magnetic elementsare directed substantially toward one another.
 4. The method of claim 1,wherein the first electrode comprises a plurality of filaments.
 5. Themethod of claim 1, further comprising a first anchor, the electrodebeing coupled to the first anchor; wherein the first body comprises afirst cavity shaped to receive the first anchor; wherein the first body,first anchor, and first electrode are arranged such that when the firstanchor is disposed within the first cavity, the first electrode isarranged to contact the biological tissue portion.
 6. The method ofclaim 5, wherein one of the first cavity and the first anchor comprisesa projection and the other of the first cavity and the first anchorcomprises a complementary recess, wherein the first anchor is configuredto be snap-fit into the first cavity such that the projection isretained within the recess.
 7. The method of claim 5, wherein the firstmagnetic element is disposed within the first anchor.
 8. The method ofclaim 5, wherein the first magnetic element is disposed within the firstbody proximate the first cavity.
 9. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising at least partially disposing one or more of the plurality offilaments within a pore of the first skin portion.
 10. The method ofclaim 9, wherein at least one of the plurality of filaments has a tipend with a width that is less than or equal to 15 microns.
 11. Themethod of claim 1, further wherein: the first body comprises a firstarcuate portion, and step of positioning the first system against thefirst skin portion comprises placing the first arcuate portion around afirst ear of the user; and the second body comprises a second arcuateportion, and step of positioning the second system against the secondskin comprises placing the second arcuate portion around a second ear ofthe user.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the first skin portion isbehind the user's first ear, and the second skin portion is behind theuser's second ear.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the step ofreceiving the second electrical signal is performed within one second orless of applying the first electrical signal.